Introduction 1.5 Future Trends 7
Introduction
mental, regulatory, and infrastructural challenges posed
by the harsh, energetic ocean environment. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for ocean energy is
currently uncertain or at best much higher than that of
fossil fuels and other renewables [1.15] because capacity factor and design life of offshore systems, which
are key drivers of LCOE, are generally not well understood. However, as has been demonstrated in the
case of development of onshore wind and solar energy [1.16], the rate at which the challenges to ocean
energy development are overcome and costs reduced
will be driven by investment as well as by a concerted effort in learning, innovation, and deployment
of prototypes that enables informed decision-making.
The good news is that a number of studies, including
proof of concepts, and computational and laboratory
investigations, have been conducted [1.17, 18] and various breakthrough energy conversion devices have been
designed and built, with over 150 global patents in
ocean energy technologies filed annually between 2009
and 2013 [1.15]. Industry investment in ocean energy,
having lagged in view of the risks involved, is being spurred in Europe and elsewhere with the help of
government subsidies. Government regulators in Europe and the United States are increasingly looking
to develop ecosystem-based coastal and marine spatial
planning (MSP [1.19]), a process for making informed
and coordinated decisions for multiple maritime activities while conserving biodiversity in the coastal
environment, in support of reducing conflicts between
commercial-scale development of ocean energy and
other competing maritime activities. MSP aids in identifying a policy framework for siting, permitting, and
developing ocean energy [1.20, 21]. MSP aims to site
ocean energy development at ocean energy hotspots
that have the lowest potential conflict with other maritime activities, such as fishing, shipping, and whale
watching, for example, as well as with lowest impact on
biodiversity. Topics in various forms of ocean energy, in
terms of resource characterization, and requisite technologies for harvesting the energy are covered in six
chapters in Part E.
1.5 Future Trends
Emerging new demands in commerce, national defense,
and energy requirements on the one hand, and advances
in electronics, computer chip industry, and marine materials on the other represent significant new challenges
and great opportunities for practicing ocean engineers
and educators in developing and implementing new
ocean technologies and educating and training the next
generation engineer workforce. Ocean engineering topics of interest in the 21st Century include:
Ocean exploration: Vast regions of the oceans remain unexplored and a new era of ocean exploration, particularly in the Arctic is expected. Based
on current progress, it will result in development
and use of custom smart ships, submersibles, remotely operated vehicles, AUVs, and gliders that
will carry smart sensor systems for navigation and
ocean observation. AUVs and USVs will be used
routinely with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),
and underwater robotics will become increasingly
sophisticated.
Shipboard automation: The drive to reduce manning onboard ships through automation has been in
progress for several years and advances are being
made utilizing developments in power electronics.
It will result in highly automated, all electric ships
that are highly reconfigurable for robust operation,
and that will use new, efficient, low emission engines and fuels [1.22].
Coastline security technologies: The new threats
due to terrorism from the seas call for greater
surveillance of our harbors, ports, and coastline and
call for development of new sensor systems and
small, automated sensor platforms.
Coastal structures: Coastal hazards, compounded
by the new significant threats associated with sealevel rise as well as rising populations in lowelevation coastal zones [1.23], will continue to require innovative engineering solutions for coastal
structures and shoreline management, in support of
sustainable management of coastal zones.
Offshore platforms: Oil and gas exploration and extraction is being extended to deep waters. This will
present new challenges in construction, implementation, and operation and maintenance of platforms
far from shore. New concepts in multiuse offshore
platforms that combine, for example, energy extraction, aquaculture, and platform-related transport
are being explored [1.24]. Such platforms facilitate
effective marine/ocean spatial planning as well as
consolidate various offshore activities, and can be
green platforms, benefiting from local renewable
ocean energy.
Renewable ocean energy: As discussed above and in
Part E, reducing the cost of harnessing ocean energy
in the forms of offshore wind, waves, ocean and
tidal currents, and thermal gradients in a sustainable
manner is a key factor in commercial-scale de-
Introduction
mental, regulatory, and infrastructural challenges posed
by the harsh, energetic ocean environment. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for ocean energy is
currently uncertain or at best much higher than that of
fossil fuels and other renewables [1.15] because capacity factor and design life of offshore systems, which
are key drivers of LCOE, are generally not well understood. However, as has been demonstrated in the
case of development of onshore wind and solar energy [1.16], the rate at which the challenges to ocean
energy development are overcome and costs reduced
will be driven by investment as well as by a concerted effort in learning, innovation, and deployment
of prototypes that enables informed decision-making.
The good news is that a number of studies, including
proof of concepts, and computational and laboratory
investigations, have been conducted [1.17, 18] and various breakthrough energy conversion devices have been
designed and built, with over 150 global patents in
ocean energy technologies filed annually between 2009
and 2013 [1.15]. Industry investment in ocean energy,
having lagged in view of the risks involved, is being spurred in Europe and elsewhere with the help of
government subsidies. Government regulators in Europe and the United States are increasingly looking
to develop ecosystem-based coastal and marine spatial
planning (MSP [1.19]), a process for making informed
and coordinated decisions for multiple maritime activities while conserving biodiversity in the coastal
environment, in support of reducing conflicts between
commercial-scale development of ocean energy and
other competing maritime activities. MSP aids in identifying a policy framework for siting, permitting, and
developing ocean energy [1.20, 21]. MSP aims to site
ocean energy development at ocean energy hotspots
that have the lowest potential conflict with other maritime activities, such as fishing, shipping, and whale
watching, for example, as well as with lowest impact on
biodiversity. Topics in various forms of ocean energy, in
terms of resource characterization, and requisite technologies for harvesting the energy are covered in six
chapters in Part E.
1.5 Future Trends
Emerging new demands in commerce, national defense,
and energy requirements on the one hand, and advances
in electronics, computer chip industry, and marine materials on the other represent significant new challenges
and great opportunities for practicing ocean engineers
and educators in developing and implementing new
ocean technologies and educating and training the next
generation engineer workforce. Ocean engineering topics of interest in the 21st Century include:
Ocean exploration: Vast regions of the oceans remain unexplored and a new era of ocean exploration, particularly in the Arctic is expected. Based
on current progress, it will result in development
and use of custom smart ships, submersibles, remotely operated vehicles, AUVs, and gliders that
will carry smart sensor systems for navigation and
ocean observation. AUVs and USVs will be used
routinely with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),
and underwater robotics will become increasingly
sophisticated.
Shipboard automation: The drive to reduce manning onboard ships through automation has been in
progress for several years and advances are being
made utilizing developments in power electronics.
It will result in highly automated, all electric ships
that are highly reconfigurable for robust operation,
and that will use new, efficient, low emission engines and fuels [1.22].
Coastline security technologies: The new threats
due to terrorism from the seas call for greater
surveillance of our harbors, ports, and coastline and
call for development of new sensor systems and
small, automated sensor platforms.
Coastal structures: Coastal hazards, compounded
by the new significant threats associated with sealevel rise as well as rising populations in lowelevation coastal zones [1.23], will continue to require innovative engineering solutions for coastal
structures and shoreline management, in support of
sustainable management of coastal zones.
Offshore platforms: Oil and gas exploration and extraction is being extended to deep waters. This will
present new challenges in construction, implementation, and operation and maintenance of platforms
far from shore. New concepts in multiuse offshore
platforms that combine, for example, energy extraction, aquaculture, and platform-related transport
are being explored [1.24]. Such platforms facilitate
effective marine/ocean spatial planning as well as
consolidate various offshore activities, and can be
green platforms, benefiting from local renewable
ocean energy.
Renewable ocean energy: As discussed above and in
Part E, reducing the cost of harnessing ocean energy
in the forms of offshore wind, waves, ocean and
tidal currents, and thermal gradients in a sustainable
manner is a key factor in commercial-scale de-