Introduction
6 Introduction
recognition of his significant contributions to coastal
engineering.
1.4.3 Offshore Systems
Offshore platforms have traditionally been critical in
extracting, processing, and temporarily storing offshore
oil and gas. The platforms can be fixed, bottomsupported structures that extend to the bottom or floating structures that are moored to the bottom. Design
and construction of a robust offshore platform, buoy or
other offshore system, as well as offshore operations
in open water pose significant challenges, depending
on the water depth, the local hydrodynamic conditions,
and payload requirements. Major design considerations for an offshore platform includes the unsteady
hydrodynamic loads that the platform would likely experience due to waves, winds, currents, and turbulent
eddies, and the interaction of the platform with the
flow, choice of materials and the design life of the
system. The type of platform and its mooring and/or
other support systems, as well as the condition of its
foundation, characterize the fluid–structure interactions
and the dynamic responses of the structure and its
floating subsystems [1.13]. Consideration is also given
to the damage and degradation resulting from corrosion, fatigue, biofouling, and wear and tear that play
a significant role in determining the frequency of requirement for duty-cycle maintenance and the design
life of the platform. Important elements of offshore systems and operations are cables or tethers for mooring
platforms, for towing systems through the water, for securing instrument packages, and for meeting a host of
other requirements. The cables or tethers in energetic
ocean environments are typically subjected to random
dynamic tension forces and the failure of a cable or
tether can have costly consequences, possibly resulting in loss of a platform, instrument, or other system.
Good estimates of these forces are required in designing and in selecting material for a marine cable or
tether.
Large mobile offshore systems include floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessels used
for production and processing of hydrocarbons, highcapacity crane vessels for offshore construction, commercial and naval ships for transport of goods and people across the oceans, and other purpose-built vessels
for transporting large specialized subsystems. Among
the latter category are container ships, bulk carriers, super tankers, liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers, ocean
liners, cruise ships, aircraft carriers and battleships.
These vessels, which can be over 300 m long, call for
special engineering requirements in terms of maritime
technology and operations. For example, a LNG carrier,
which is specifically discussed in Chap. 41 in Part D, is
used for transporting flammable liquefied natural gas at
cryogenic temperature of 163
ı C and is designed to
provide the necessary thermal isolation and operational
safety.
Major offshore operations, such as oil-spill remediation and salvage of ships and submarines, require
significant planning and preparation and merit special
considerations. Major oil spills, such as in the Gulf of
Mexico in 2010, pose significant environmental hazards
and typically call for rapid responses. Complex physical, biological, and chemical weathering processes
govern the fate of an oil spill in water, including interaction with suspended sediments, and the processes
being dependent on the type of oil and prevailing local
environmental conditions. As a result, following a major spill, there is large uncertainty in the portion of the
oil that is at the water surface, where it may be subjected to significant evaporation, and the portions that
remain suspended within the water column, at what
depths, and in what form, as well as how much gets
deposited on the seabed [1.14]. The state of the art in
engineering expertise and technology critically governs
the effectiveness and timeliness of the response to an
oil spill, from detection of the spill, to identification of
source location(s), to characterization of the extent of
the spill, to surveillance and monitoring, to intervention, mitigation, and remediation. Salvage of ships and
submarines lost at sea also entails major broad-based,
interdisciplinary engineering operations. Salvage engineers apply the principles of naval architecture and
ocean engineering in assessing the strength and stability of damaged vessels and in recovering them from
the sea. Working knowledge of basic ocean engineering topics, maritime safety engineering, and the theory
and practice associated with rigging offshore systems
are essential for a practicing salvage engineer. Oil-spill
remediation and salvage operations are considered in
two major chapters in Part D.
1.4.4 Ocean Energy
Worldwide theoretical potential of ocean energy (in the
forms of offshore wind, wave, ocean and tidal currents, and thermal and salinity gradients) as a renewable
source for electricity is striking. It is estimated that this
potential ranges from 20 000 to 80000 terawatt-hours
(TWh) of electricity annually, which is 100400% of
current global demand [1.15]. Actual resources that
can be harvested cost-effectively are currently much
smaller. Ocean energy development is significantly behind in technical maturity, compared with other renewables such as onshore wind and photovoltaic solar.
This is due to the technical, socioeconomic, environ-
6 Introduction
recognition of his significant contributions to coastal
engineering.
1.4.3 Offshore Systems
Offshore platforms have traditionally been critical in
extracting, processing, and temporarily storing offshore
oil and gas. The platforms can be fixed, bottomsupported structures that extend to the bottom or floating structures that are moored to the bottom. Design
and construction of a robust offshore platform, buoy or
other offshore system, as well as offshore operations
in open water pose significant challenges, depending
on the water depth, the local hydrodynamic conditions,
and payload requirements. Major design considerations for an offshore platform includes the unsteady
hydrodynamic loads that the platform would likely experience due to waves, winds, currents, and turbulent
eddies, and the interaction of the platform with the
flow, choice of materials and the design life of the
system. The type of platform and its mooring and/or
other support systems, as well as the condition of its
foundation, characterize the fluid–structure interactions
and the dynamic responses of the structure and its
floating subsystems [1.13]. Consideration is also given
to the damage and degradation resulting from corrosion, fatigue, biofouling, and wear and tear that play
a significant role in determining the frequency of requirement for duty-cycle maintenance and the design
life of the platform. Important elements of offshore systems and operations are cables or tethers for mooring
platforms, for towing systems through the water, for securing instrument packages, and for meeting a host of
other requirements. The cables or tethers in energetic
ocean environments are typically subjected to random
dynamic tension forces and the failure of a cable or
tether can have costly consequences, possibly resulting in loss of a platform, instrument, or other system.
Good estimates of these forces are required in designing and in selecting material for a marine cable or
tether.
Large mobile offshore systems include floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessels used
for production and processing of hydrocarbons, highcapacity crane vessels for offshore construction, commercial and naval ships for transport of goods and people across the oceans, and other purpose-built vessels
for transporting large specialized subsystems. Among
the latter category are container ships, bulk carriers, super tankers, liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers, ocean
liners, cruise ships, aircraft carriers and battleships.
These vessels, which can be over 300 m long, call for
special engineering requirements in terms of maritime
technology and operations. For example, a LNG carrier,
which is specifically discussed in Chap. 41 in Part D, is
used for transporting flammable liquefied natural gas at
cryogenic temperature of 163
ı C and is designed to
provide the necessary thermal isolation and operational
safety.
Major offshore operations, such as oil-spill remediation and salvage of ships and submarines, require
significant planning and preparation and merit special
considerations. Major oil spills, such as in the Gulf of
Mexico in 2010, pose significant environmental hazards
and typically call for rapid responses. Complex physical, biological, and chemical weathering processes
govern the fate of an oil spill in water, including interaction with suspended sediments, and the processes
being dependent on the type of oil and prevailing local
environmental conditions. As a result, following a major spill, there is large uncertainty in the portion of the
oil that is at the water surface, where it may be subjected to significant evaporation, and the portions that
remain suspended within the water column, at what
depths, and in what form, as well as how much gets
deposited on the seabed [1.14]. The state of the art in
engineering expertise and technology critically governs
the effectiveness and timeliness of the response to an
oil spill, from detection of the spill, to identification of
source location(s), to characterization of the extent of
the spill, to surveillance and monitoring, to intervention, mitigation, and remediation. Salvage of ships and
submarines lost at sea also entails major broad-based,
interdisciplinary engineering operations. Salvage engineers apply the principles of naval architecture and
ocean engineering in assessing the strength and stability of damaged vessels and in recovering them from
the sea. Working knowledge of basic ocean engineering topics, maritime safety engineering, and the theory
and practice associated with rigging offshore systems
are essential for a practicing salvage engineer. Oil-spill
remediation and salvage operations are considered in
two major chapters in Part D.
1.4.4 Ocean Energy
Worldwide theoretical potential of ocean energy (in the
forms of offshore wind, wave, ocean and tidal currents, and thermal and salinity gradients) as a renewable
source for electricity is striking. It is estimated that this
potential ranges from 20 000 to 80000 terawatt-hours
(TWh) of electricity annually, which is 100400% of
current global demand [1.15]. Actual resources that
can be harvested cost-effectively are currently much
smaller. Ocean energy development is significantly behind in technical maturity, compared with other renewables such as onshore wind and photovoltaic solar.
This is due to the technical, socioeconomic, environ-