count every year in the past 50 years (Ripple et al. 2014). Globally, livestock sector
is responsible for approximately 14.5 % of all anthropogenic GHG emissions
(Gerber et al. 2013) and in it, ruminants contribute 11.6 % and cattle alone contributes 9.4 % of all greenhouse gas emissions from anthropogenic sources (Ripple
et al. 2014). Among ruminants, emissions due to cattle are substantially higher than
those from buffalo or sheep and goats (Gerber et al. 2013; Ripple et al. 2014). CH 4
contributes about 44 % of the livestock sector’s emissions which comes from
enteric fermentation, manure and rice feed. The other gases are CO 2 (27 %) from
land-use change and fossil fuel use, and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (29 %) from fertilizer
applied to feed-crop fields and manure (Gerber et al. 2013).
The total grazing land encompasses almost 26 % of the terrestrial surface of
earth (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Livestock production accounts for 70 % of global
agricultural land and the area dedicated to feed-crop production represents 33 % of
total arable land (Steinfeld et al. 2006). The feeding of crops to livestock is in direct
competition with producing crops for human consumption and climate mitigation
(Smith et al. 2013). Ruminant rearing can adversely affect the ecosystem by
deforestation of the grazing lands, land-use intensification, soil erosion, and competition with due to grazing prominent mostly in tropical region where animals are
left loose for grazing (McAlpine et al. 2009). Control over this kind of deforestation
may allow regrowth of forests and grassland vegetation and thus improves our
environment.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has pointed out
that the growth of the meat industries is also having a great impact in fastening the
global warming scenario (Steinfeld et al. 2006). The greenhouse gas production
from meat industry on average is 19–48 times higher than that of high-protein foods
obtained from plants which include both direct and indirect environmental effects
like enteric fermentation, manure, feed, fertilizer, processing, transportation and
land-use change, etc. (Ripple et al. 2014). So, decrease in meat consumption from
ruminant origin, i.e. beef or more consumption of pork and chicken may also play
an important strategy in controlling the climate change.
Change in the climate may impact in the quality and quantity of feeds and
forages. This includes herbage growth rate, composition of pasture, dry matter of
the forages which is mostly governed by drought or excess rainfall which increase
or decrease the DM content of the available forages, respectively (Hopkins and Del
Prado 2007). The continuous change in this environment temperature may hamper
the normal physiology of the animals. At higher temperature, there will be decline
in feed intake and in reproductive performances. Drop in the feed intake may be
reflected in a decline in milk yield also (Thornton et al. 2009). Global warming also
causes melting of polar snow and thus the coastal area is submerged in the seas. The
rise in the temperature may hasten the hatching process which may lead to larger
population of the pathogen (Harvell et al. 2002). Along with all these direct effects
90
P.S. Swain et al.
is responsible for approximately 14.5 % of all anthropogenic GHG emissions
(Gerber et al. 2013) and in it, ruminants contribute 11.6 % and cattle alone contributes 9.4 % of all greenhouse gas emissions from anthropogenic sources (Ripple
et al. 2014). Among ruminants, emissions due to cattle are substantially higher than
those from buffalo or sheep and goats (Gerber et al. 2013; Ripple et al. 2014). CH 4
contributes about 44 % of the livestock sector’s emissions which comes from
enteric fermentation, manure and rice feed. The other gases are CO 2 (27 %) from
land-use change and fossil fuel use, and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) (29 %) from fertilizer
applied to feed-crop fields and manure (Gerber et al. 2013).
The total grazing land encompasses almost 26 % of the terrestrial surface of
earth (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Livestock production accounts for 70 % of global
agricultural land and the area dedicated to feed-crop production represents 33 % of
total arable land (Steinfeld et al. 2006). The feeding of crops to livestock is in direct
competition with producing crops for human consumption and climate mitigation
(Smith et al. 2013). Ruminant rearing can adversely affect the ecosystem by
deforestation of the grazing lands, land-use intensification, soil erosion, and competition with due to grazing prominent mostly in tropical region where animals are
left loose for grazing (McAlpine et al. 2009). Control over this kind of deforestation
may allow regrowth of forests and grassland vegetation and thus improves our
environment.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has pointed out
that the growth of the meat industries is also having a great impact in fastening the
global warming scenario (Steinfeld et al. 2006). The greenhouse gas production
from meat industry on average is 19–48 times higher than that of high-protein foods
obtained from plants which include both direct and indirect environmental effects
like enteric fermentation, manure, feed, fertilizer, processing, transportation and
land-use change, etc. (Ripple et al. 2014). So, decrease in meat consumption from
ruminant origin, i.e. beef or more consumption of pork and chicken may also play
an important strategy in controlling the climate change.
Change in the climate may impact in the quality and quantity of feeds and
forages. This includes herbage growth rate, composition of pasture, dry matter of
the forages which is mostly governed by drought or excess rainfall which increase
or decrease the DM content of the available forages, respectively (Hopkins and Del
Prado 2007). The continuous change in this environment temperature may hamper
the normal physiology of the animals. At higher temperature, there will be decline
in feed intake and in reproductive performances. Drop in the feed intake may be
reflected in a decline in milk yield also (Thornton et al. 2009). Global warming also
causes melting of polar snow and thus the coastal area is submerged in the seas. The
rise in the temperature may hasten the hatching process which may lead to larger
population of the pathogen (Harvell et al. 2002). Along with all these direct effects
90
P.S. Swain et al.