67
Chapter three: Exercise energetics
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. Locomotion: Energy cost of swimming, flying, and running. Science
177(4045): 222–228.
Scholander, P.F. 1959. Wave-riding dolphins: How do they do it? At present only the dolphin knows
the answer to this free-for-all in hydrodynamics. Science 129(3356): 1085–1087.
Skinner, J.P., Y. Mitani, V.N. Burkanov, and R.D. Andrews. 2014. Proxies of food intake and energy
expenditure for estimating the time–energy budgets of lactating northern fur seals Callorhinus
ursinus. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 461: 107–115.
Skrovan, R.C., T.M. Williams, P.S. Berry, P.W. Moore, and R.W. Davis. 1999. The diving physiology of
bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). II. Biomechanics and changes in buoyancy at depth.
Journal of Experimental Biology 202(20): 2749–2761.
Sparling, C.E., D. Thompson, M.A. Fedak, S.L. Gallon, and J.R. Speakman. 2008. Estimating field
metabolic rates of pinnipeds: Doubly labelled water gets the seal of approval. Functional
Ecology 22(2): 245–254.
Speakman, J.R. 1997. Doubly Labelled Water: Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
Speakman, J.R. and E. Król. 2010. Maximal heat dissipation capacity and hyperthermia risk:
Neglected key factors in the ecology of endotherms. Journal of Animal Ecology 79(4): 726–746.
Taylor, C.R., N.C. Heglund, and G.M. Maloiy. 1982. Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. I. Metabolic energy consumption as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals. Journal of Experimental Biology 97(1): 1–21.
Taylor, C.R., K. Schmidt-Nielsen, and J.L. Raab. 1970. Scaling of energetic cost of running to body
size in mammals. American Journal of Physiology–Legacy Content 219(4): 1104–1107.
Thewissen, J.G.M., S.T. Hussain, and M. Arif. 1994. Fossil evidence for the origin of aquatic locomotion in archaeocete whales. Science 263(5144): 210–212.
Thometz, N.M., M.J. Murray, and T.M. Williams. 2015. Ontogeny of oxygen storage capacity and
diving ability in the Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis): Costs and benefits of large lungs.
Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 88(3):311–327. doi: 10.1086/681019.
Thometz, N.M., M.T. Tinker, M.M. Staedler, K.A. Mayer, and T.M. Williams. 2014. Energetic
demands of immature sea otters from birth to weaning: Implications for maternal costs,
reproductive behavior and population-level trends. Journal of Experimental Biology 217(12):
2053–2061.
Tift, M.S., E.C. Ranalli, D.S. Houser, R.M. Ortiz, and D.E. Crocker. 2013. Development enhances
hypometabolism in northern elephant seal pups (Mirounga angustirostris). Functional Ecology
27(5): 1155–1165.
Tyack, P.L., M.P. Johnson, N.A. Soto, A. Sturlese, and P.T. Madsen. 2006. Extreme diving of beaked
whales. Journal of Experimental Biology 209(21): 4238–4253.
Villegas-Amtmann, S., L.K. Schwarz, J.L. Sumich, and D.P. Costa. 2015. Population consequences of
lost foraging opportunity in eastern female gray whales. Ecosphere (in press).
Williams, T.M. 1989. Swimming by sea otters: Adaptations for low energetic cost locomotion. Journal
of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 164(6):
815–824.
Williams, T.M.. 1999. The evolution of cost efficient swimming in marine mammals: Limits to energetic optimization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 354(1380):
193–201.
Williams, T.M., R.W. Davis, L.A. Fuiman et al. 2000. Sink or swim: Strategies for cost-efficient diving
by marine mammals. Science 288(5463): 133–136.
Williams, T.M., W.A. Friedl, M.L. Fong, R.M. Yamada, P. Sedivy, and J.E. Haun. 1992. Travel at low
energetic cost by swimming and wave-riding bottlenose dolphins. Nature 355(6363): 821–823.
Williams, T.M., W.A. Friedl, and J.E. Haun. 1993. The physiology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops
truncatus): Heart rate, metabolic rate and plasma lactate concentration during exercise. Journal
of Experimental Biology 179(1): 31–46.
Williams, T.M., L.A. Fuiman, and R.W. Davis. 2015a. Locomotion and the cost of hunting in large,
stealthy marine carnivores. Integrative and Comparative Biology. doi:10.1093/icb/icv025.
Williams, T.M., L.A. Fuiman, M. Horning, and R.W. Davis. 2004. The cost of foraging by a marine
predator, the Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii: Pricing by the stroke. Journal of Experimental
Biology 207(6): 973–982.
Chapter three: Exercise energetics
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. Locomotion: Energy cost of swimming, flying, and running. Science
177(4045): 222–228.
Scholander, P.F. 1959. Wave-riding dolphins: How do they do it? At present only the dolphin knows
the answer to this free-for-all in hydrodynamics. Science 129(3356): 1085–1087.
Skinner, J.P., Y. Mitani, V.N. Burkanov, and R.D. Andrews. 2014. Proxies of food intake and energy
expenditure for estimating the time–energy budgets of lactating northern fur seals Callorhinus
ursinus. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 461: 107–115.
Skrovan, R.C., T.M. Williams, P.S. Berry, P.W. Moore, and R.W. Davis. 1999. The diving physiology of
bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). II. Biomechanics and changes in buoyancy at depth.
Journal of Experimental Biology 202(20): 2749–2761.
Sparling, C.E., D. Thompson, M.A. Fedak, S.L. Gallon, and J.R. Speakman. 2008. Estimating field
metabolic rates of pinnipeds: Doubly labelled water gets the seal of approval. Functional
Ecology 22(2): 245–254.
Speakman, J.R. 1997. Doubly Labelled Water: Theory and Practice. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
Speakman, J.R. and E. Król. 2010. Maximal heat dissipation capacity and hyperthermia risk:
Neglected key factors in the ecology of endotherms. Journal of Animal Ecology 79(4): 726–746.
Taylor, C.R., N.C. Heglund, and G.M. Maloiy. 1982. Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. I. Metabolic energy consumption as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals. Journal of Experimental Biology 97(1): 1–21.
Taylor, C.R., K. Schmidt-Nielsen, and J.L. Raab. 1970. Scaling of energetic cost of running to body
size in mammals. American Journal of Physiology–Legacy Content 219(4): 1104–1107.
Thewissen, J.G.M., S.T. Hussain, and M. Arif. 1994. Fossil evidence for the origin of aquatic locomotion in archaeocete whales. Science 263(5144): 210–212.
Thometz, N.M., M.J. Murray, and T.M. Williams. 2015. Ontogeny of oxygen storage capacity and
diving ability in the Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis): Costs and benefits of large lungs.
Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 88(3):311–327. doi: 10.1086/681019.
Thometz, N.M., M.T. Tinker, M.M. Staedler, K.A. Mayer, and T.M. Williams. 2014. Energetic
demands of immature sea otters from birth to weaning: Implications for maternal costs,
reproductive behavior and population-level trends. Journal of Experimental Biology 217(12):
2053–2061.
Tift, M.S., E.C. Ranalli, D.S. Houser, R.M. Ortiz, and D.E. Crocker. 2013. Development enhances
hypometabolism in northern elephant seal pups (Mirounga angustirostris). Functional Ecology
27(5): 1155–1165.
Tyack, P.L., M.P. Johnson, N.A. Soto, A. Sturlese, and P.T. Madsen. 2006. Extreme diving of beaked
whales. Journal of Experimental Biology 209(21): 4238–4253.
Villegas-Amtmann, S., L.K. Schwarz, J.L. Sumich, and D.P. Costa. 2015. Population consequences of
lost foraging opportunity in eastern female gray whales. Ecosphere (in press).
Williams, T.M. 1989. Swimming by sea otters: Adaptations for low energetic cost locomotion. Journal
of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 164(6):
815–824.
Williams, T.M.. 1999. The evolution of cost efficient swimming in marine mammals: Limits to energetic optimization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 354(1380):
193–201.
Williams, T.M., R.W. Davis, L.A. Fuiman et al. 2000. Sink or swim: Strategies for cost-efficient diving
by marine mammals. Science 288(5463): 133–136.
Williams, T.M., W.A. Friedl, M.L. Fong, R.M. Yamada, P. Sedivy, and J.E. Haun. 1992. Travel at low
energetic cost by swimming and wave-riding bottlenose dolphins. Nature 355(6363): 821–823.
Williams, T.M., W.A. Friedl, and J.E. Haun. 1993. The physiology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops
truncatus): Heart rate, metabolic rate and plasma lactate concentration during exercise. Journal
of Experimental Biology 179(1): 31–46.
Williams, T.M., L.A. Fuiman, and R.W. Davis. 2015a. Locomotion and the cost of hunting in large,
stealthy marine carnivores. Integrative and Comparative Biology. doi:10.1093/icb/icv025.
Williams, T.M., L.A. Fuiman, M. Horning, and R.W. Davis. 2004. The cost of foraging by a marine
predator, the Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii: Pricing by the stroke. Journal of Experimental
Biology 207(6): 973–982.