86 Marine Macro- and Microalgae: An Overview
and energy flows is to be achieved. Incentive systems are required that encourage this activity and, thus,
further progress towards the rational use of our coastal systems. The ecological efficiency, environmental
sustainability, and economic profitability associated with the culture of carnivorous organisms, can be
improved when the aquaculture activity is undertaken within an ecologically balanced system. This
involves integrating species with a low trophic level, in accordance with the perspective of integrated
multi-trophic aquaculture (Ridler et al. 2007; Neori and Nobre 2012), together with a more appropriate
regulatory context. Thus, aggregate value must be generated for the algae, which will increase demand.
On the other hand, efforts to internalize the environmental costs must be made to stimulate the use
of technologies that reduce negative externalities and their associated costs (Buschmann et al. 1996b,
2008a; Chopin et al. 2001). If Chile tackles these issues in depth, it could export not only food products,
but also sustainable production technology for world aquaculture development.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on previous studies carried out over the past 20 years, supported, principally, by
FONDECYT-Chile and Programa Basal-Conicyt (FB-001) during the past 4 years. The cooperation
of Susan Angus, in the translation of the manuscript, and the text review by Matthew Lee is greatly
appreciated.
References
Abreu, M.H., D.A. Varela, L.A. Henríquez, A. Villarroel, C. Yarish, I. Sousa-Pinto and A.H. Buschmann. 2009. Traditional
vs. integrated multi-trophic aquaculture of Gracilaria chilensis C. J. Bird, J. McLachlan & E. C. Oliveira: productivity
and physiological performance. Aquaculture 293: 211–220.
Anderson, D.M., P.M. Glibert and J.M. Burkholder. 2002. Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources,
composition, and consequences. Estuaries 25: 704–726.
Becker, L.A., M.A. Pascual and N.G. Basso. 2007. Colonization of the southern Patagonia ocean by exotic chinook almon.
Conser. Biol. 21: 1347–1352.
Bixler, H.J. and H. Porse. 2011. A decade of change in seaweed hydrocolloids industry. J. Appl. Phycol. 23: 321–335.
Bravo, S. and P.J. Midtlyng. 2007. The use of fish vaccines in the Chilean salmon industry 1999–2003. Aquaculture 270: 36–42.
Buschmann, A.H., M. Troell, N. Kautsky and L. Kautsky. 1996a. Integrated tank cultivation of salmonids and Gracilaria
chilensis (Rhodophyta). Hydrobiologia 326/327: 75–82.
Buschmann, A.H., D.A. López and A. Medina. 1996b. A review of the environmental effects and alternative production
strategies of marine aquaculture in Chile. Aquacult. Eng. 15: 397–421.
Buschmann, A.H., F. Briganti and C.A. Retamales. 1997. Intertidal cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis (Rhodophyta) in southern
Chile: long term invertebrate abundance patterns. Aquaculture 156: 269–278.
Buschmann, A.H. and R. Pizarro. 2001. El costo ambiental de la salmonicultura en Chile. Análisis de Políticas Públicas
(Fundación Terram) 5: 1–7.
Buschmann, A.H., J.A. Correa, R. Westermeier, M.C. Hernández-González and R. Norambuena. 2001. Red algal farming in
Chile: a review. Aquaculture 194: 203–220.
Buschmann, A.H. and A. Fortt. 2005. Efectos ambientales de la acuicultura intensiva y alternativas para un desarrollo
sustentable. Ambiente y Desarrollo 21: 58–64.
Buschmann, A.H., V.A. Riquelme, M.C. Hernández-González, D.A. Varela, J.E. Jiménez, L.A. Henríquez, P.A. Vergara,
R. Guíñez and L. Filún. 2006a. A review of the impacts of salmon farming on marine coastal ecosystems in the southeast
Pacific. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 63: 1338–1345.
Buschmann, A.H., V.A. Riquelme, M.C. Hernández-González and L.A. Henríquez. 2006b. Additional perspectives for ecosystem
approaches for aquaculture. pp. 168–176. In: J.P. McVey, C.-S. Lee and P.J. O’Bryan (eds.). Aquaculture and Ecosystems:
An Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management Approach. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Buschmann, A.H., M.C. Hernández-González, C. Aranda, T. Chopin, A. Neori, C. Halling and M. Troell. 2008a. Mariculture
waste management. pp. 2211–2217. In: S.E. Jorgensen and B.D. Fath (eds.). Ecological Engineering: Vol. 3 of
Encyclopedia of Ecology, Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
Buschmann, A.H., M.C. Hernández-González and D.A. Varela. 2008b. Seaweed future cultivation in Chile: perspectives and
challenges. Int. J. Env. Pollut. 33: 432–456.
Buschmann, A.H., D.A. Varela, M.C. Hernández-González and P. Huovinen. 2008c. Opportunities and challenges for the
development of an integrated seaweed-based aquaculture activity in Chile: Determining the physiological capabilities
of Macrocystis and Gracilaria as biofilters. J. Appl. Phycol. 20: 571–577.
and energy flows is to be achieved. Incentive systems are required that encourage this activity and, thus,
further progress towards the rational use of our coastal systems. The ecological efficiency, environmental
sustainability, and economic profitability associated with the culture of carnivorous organisms, can be
improved when the aquaculture activity is undertaken within an ecologically balanced system. This
involves integrating species with a low trophic level, in accordance with the perspective of integrated
multi-trophic aquaculture (Ridler et al. 2007; Neori and Nobre 2012), together with a more appropriate
regulatory context. Thus, aggregate value must be generated for the algae, which will increase demand.
On the other hand, efforts to internalize the environmental costs must be made to stimulate the use
of technologies that reduce negative externalities and their associated costs (Buschmann et al. 1996b,
2008a; Chopin et al. 2001). If Chile tackles these issues in depth, it could export not only food products,
but also sustainable production technology for world aquaculture development.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on previous studies carried out over the past 20 years, supported, principally, by
FONDECYT-Chile and Programa Basal-Conicyt (FB-001) during the past 4 years. The cooperation
of Susan Angus, in the translation of the manuscript, and the text review by Matthew Lee is greatly
appreciated.
References
Abreu, M.H., D.A. Varela, L.A. Henríquez, A. Villarroel, C. Yarish, I. Sousa-Pinto and A.H. Buschmann. 2009. Traditional
vs. integrated multi-trophic aquaculture of Gracilaria chilensis C. J. Bird, J. McLachlan & E. C. Oliveira: productivity
and physiological performance. Aquaculture 293: 211–220.
Anderson, D.M., P.M. Glibert and J.M. Burkholder. 2002. Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources,
composition, and consequences. Estuaries 25: 704–726.
Becker, L.A., M.A. Pascual and N.G. Basso. 2007. Colonization of the southern Patagonia ocean by exotic chinook almon.
Conser. Biol. 21: 1347–1352.
Bixler, H.J. and H. Porse. 2011. A decade of change in seaweed hydrocolloids industry. J. Appl. Phycol. 23: 321–335.
Bravo, S. and P.J. Midtlyng. 2007. The use of fish vaccines in the Chilean salmon industry 1999–2003. Aquaculture 270: 36–42.
Buschmann, A.H., M. Troell, N. Kautsky and L. Kautsky. 1996a. Integrated tank cultivation of salmonids and Gracilaria
chilensis (Rhodophyta). Hydrobiologia 326/327: 75–82.
Buschmann, A.H., D.A. López and A. Medina. 1996b. A review of the environmental effects and alternative production
strategies of marine aquaculture in Chile. Aquacult. Eng. 15: 397–421.
Buschmann, A.H., F. Briganti and C.A. Retamales. 1997. Intertidal cultivation of Gracilaria chilensis (Rhodophyta) in southern
Chile: long term invertebrate abundance patterns. Aquaculture 156: 269–278.
Buschmann, A.H. and R. Pizarro. 2001. El costo ambiental de la salmonicultura en Chile. Análisis de Políticas Públicas
(Fundación Terram) 5: 1–7.
Buschmann, A.H., J.A. Correa, R. Westermeier, M.C. Hernández-González and R. Norambuena. 2001. Red algal farming in
Chile: a review. Aquaculture 194: 203–220.
Buschmann, A.H. and A. Fortt. 2005. Efectos ambientales de la acuicultura intensiva y alternativas para un desarrollo
sustentable. Ambiente y Desarrollo 21: 58–64.
Buschmann, A.H., V.A. Riquelme, M.C. Hernández-González, D.A. Varela, J.E. Jiménez, L.A. Henríquez, P.A. Vergara,
R. Guíñez and L. Filún. 2006a. A review of the impacts of salmon farming on marine coastal ecosystems in the southeast
Pacific. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 63: 1338–1345.
Buschmann, A.H., V.A. Riquelme, M.C. Hernández-González and L.A. Henríquez. 2006b. Additional perspectives for ecosystem
approaches for aquaculture. pp. 168–176. In: J.P. McVey, C.-S. Lee and P.J. O’Bryan (eds.). Aquaculture and Ecosystems:
An Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management Approach. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Buschmann, A.H., M.C. Hernández-González, C. Aranda, T. Chopin, A. Neori, C. Halling and M. Troell. 2008a. Mariculture
waste management. pp. 2211–2217. In: S.E. Jorgensen and B.D. Fath (eds.). Ecological Engineering: Vol. 3 of
Encyclopedia of Ecology, Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
Buschmann, A.H., M.C. Hernández-González and D.A. Varela. 2008b. Seaweed future cultivation in Chile: perspectives and
challenges. Int. J. Env. Pollut. 33: 432–456.
Buschmann, A.H., D.A. Varela, M.C. Hernández-González and P. Huovinen. 2008c. Opportunities and challenges for the
development of an integrated seaweed-based aquaculture activity in Chile: Determining the physiological capabilities
of Macrocystis and Gracilaria as biofilters. J. Appl. Phycol. 20: 571–577.