Advances and Constraints of Seaweed Farming 85
context of the General Law on Fisheries and Aquaculture (Ley General de Pesca y Acuicultura; LGPA).
Since its approval in 2001, this regulation has been modified, from 2005 onwards, with the intention
of adjusting the norm to its practical application. The RAMA aims to establish criteria that define the
concept of “environmental damage”, as well as methodologies for preliminary characterization of culture
site (PCS) and environmental information (EINF), in order to evaluate (initially) and monitor (over
time), environmental indicators aimed at determining whether or not the loading capacity of the water
body subject to aquaculture activity has been exceeded. Thus, it will be possible to establish when the
sedimentation area of the productive installations presents anaerobic conditions, equivalent to a situation
where sediment or water column variables have been exceeded, i.e., O 2 ≤ 2.4 mg L
–1
, organic material
content ≥ 9.1%, pH ≤ 6.7, and the absence of coats of visible microorganisms and gas bubbles. By
categorizing culture centers, this regulation recognizes differences in the degree of impact generated by
different aquaculture activities, according to the biomass produced, or whether they require external supply
of food or fertilizers. Nevertheless, the present normative does not make explicit reference to the role of
the dissolved inorganic nutrient input in environmental degradation and its effect on reducing the loading
capacity. As large areas of mollusks and/or macroalgae cultivated in suspended systems, or anchored to
the bottom, can reduce current velocity and, thus, increase the sedimentation rate (e.g., Buschmann et al.
1997; McKindsey et al. 2011), regulation should, contemplate appropriate measurements and indicators
suitable for the massive farming of this organisms, considering species, type of culture system, and the
production scale that are different than for finfish cage farming. Thus, these mentioned regulation issues
could be perceived as an aspect (in addition to the commercial factors previously mentioned) that impedes
seaweed aquaculture development in Chile. On the other hand, algal aquaculture must also be undertaken
under conditions that minimize its environmental impact. Clearly, this normative is biased, associated
with the fact that, at present, only Gracilaria chilensis is cultured on a commercial scale (Buschmann et
al. 2001, 2013). As has been commented on previous occasions, development of culture of other species,
using different production systems, is envisaged; this is case of Macrocystis pyrifera, where aquaculture
protocols aim towards suspended production systems (Gutiérrez et al. 2006; Westermeier et al. 2006;
Macchiavello et al. 2010). However, as mentioned, market factors still exist that continue to impede its
development. As a consequence, it would appear necessary to incorporate the specificities of algal culture
into the RAMA and aquaculture regulations in general, covering all aspects of its diversity to ensure that
regulatory distortions inhibiting the future development of algal aquaculture in Chile are not produced.
Conclusions
Considering that fisheries resources are becoming increasingly more scarce, both on a national and
worldwide scale (Jackson et al. 2001; Pauly et al. 2002; Worm et al. 2009), it is envisaged that the
importance of aquaculture will increase significantly in the near future (Diana 2009; Hallam 2012).
This will open new commercial opportunities for the global development of aquaculture (Duarte et al.
2007, 2009). However, on the one hand, it will be necessary to incorporate the explicit compromise of
aquaculture activity with the sustainable management of the environment (Costa-Pierce 2010), and to
focus on the development of innovative technologies to sustain this increase in production (Diana et al.
2013).
In the case of Chile, this opportunity for economic and social development cannot be sustained
on the basis of a disregard for the country’s environmental patrimony. Formulas and strategies must
be identified, whereby productive goals can be reached in association with an explicitly described
environmental component (Buschmann et al. 2009, 2013). Aquaculture diversification must be based
on the incorporation of species with different ecological functions (primary producers, detritivores,
herbivores, and carnivores) in order to balance the flow of material and energy in coastal systems used by
aquaculture practices. In this context, generating scientific information is essential to the sustainability
of aquaculture in Chile (Buschmann et al. 2009). Similarly, the technological proposals and innovations
already in existence must be implemented, to resolve previously mentioned deficiencies. In particular,
the ecosystemic services provided by algae must be taken into consideration, if a balance in material
context of the General Law on Fisheries and Aquaculture (Ley General de Pesca y Acuicultura; LGPA).
Since its approval in 2001, this regulation has been modified, from 2005 onwards, with the intention
of adjusting the norm to its practical application. The RAMA aims to establish criteria that define the
concept of “environmental damage”, as well as methodologies for preliminary characterization of culture
site (PCS) and environmental information (EINF), in order to evaluate (initially) and monitor (over
time), environmental indicators aimed at determining whether or not the loading capacity of the water
body subject to aquaculture activity has been exceeded. Thus, it will be possible to establish when the
sedimentation area of the productive installations presents anaerobic conditions, equivalent to a situation
where sediment or water column variables have been exceeded, i.e., O 2 ≤ 2.4 mg L
–1
, organic material
content ≥ 9.1%, pH ≤ 6.7, and the absence of coats of visible microorganisms and gas bubbles. By
categorizing culture centers, this regulation recognizes differences in the degree of impact generated by
different aquaculture activities, according to the biomass produced, or whether they require external supply
of food or fertilizers. Nevertheless, the present normative does not make explicit reference to the role of
the dissolved inorganic nutrient input in environmental degradation and its effect on reducing the loading
capacity. As large areas of mollusks and/or macroalgae cultivated in suspended systems, or anchored to
the bottom, can reduce current velocity and, thus, increase the sedimentation rate (e.g., Buschmann et al.
1997; McKindsey et al. 2011), regulation should, contemplate appropriate measurements and indicators
suitable for the massive farming of this organisms, considering species, type of culture system, and the
production scale that are different than for finfish cage farming. Thus, these mentioned regulation issues
could be perceived as an aspect (in addition to the commercial factors previously mentioned) that impedes
seaweed aquaculture development in Chile. On the other hand, algal aquaculture must also be undertaken
under conditions that minimize its environmental impact. Clearly, this normative is biased, associated
with the fact that, at present, only Gracilaria chilensis is cultured on a commercial scale (Buschmann et
al. 2001, 2013). As has been commented on previous occasions, development of culture of other species,
using different production systems, is envisaged; this is case of Macrocystis pyrifera, where aquaculture
protocols aim towards suspended production systems (Gutiérrez et al. 2006; Westermeier et al. 2006;
Macchiavello et al. 2010). However, as mentioned, market factors still exist that continue to impede its
development. As a consequence, it would appear necessary to incorporate the specificities of algal culture
into the RAMA and aquaculture regulations in general, covering all aspects of its diversity to ensure that
regulatory distortions inhibiting the future development of algal aquaculture in Chile are not produced.
Conclusions
Considering that fisheries resources are becoming increasingly more scarce, both on a national and
worldwide scale (Jackson et al. 2001; Pauly et al. 2002; Worm et al. 2009), it is envisaged that the
importance of aquaculture will increase significantly in the near future (Diana 2009; Hallam 2012).
This will open new commercial opportunities for the global development of aquaculture (Duarte et al.
2007, 2009). However, on the one hand, it will be necessary to incorporate the explicit compromise of
aquaculture activity with the sustainable management of the environment (Costa-Pierce 2010), and to
focus on the development of innovative technologies to sustain this increase in production (Diana et al.
2013).
In the case of Chile, this opportunity for economic and social development cannot be sustained
on the basis of a disregard for the country’s environmental patrimony. Formulas and strategies must
be identified, whereby productive goals can be reached in association with an explicitly described
environmental component (Buschmann et al. 2009, 2013). Aquaculture diversification must be based
on the incorporation of species with different ecological functions (primary producers, detritivores,
herbivores, and carnivores) in order to balance the flow of material and energy in coastal systems used by
aquaculture practices. In this context, generating scientific information is essential to the sustainability
of aquaculture in Chile (Buschmann et al. 2009). Similarly, the technological proposals and innovations
already in existence must be implemented, to resolve previously mentioned deficiencies. In particular,
the ecosystemic services provided by algae must be taken into consideration, if a balance in material