84 Marine Macro- and Microalgae: An Overview
value of phycocolloids, such as alginates in the production of more efficient batteries (Kovalenko et al.
2011), or other innovative uses, will necessity for algal culture increase, raising demand and improving
prices (see other examples in Kim 2012). In addition to the traditional use of seaweed as a source of
phycocolloids, the demand for seaweed, in particular Macrocystis as an ingredient in diet formulations
for animals, such as the case of abalone cultures (Flores-Aguilar et al. 2007), has generated greater
extraction restrictions for certain species in Chile (Vásquez 2008). On the other hand, the use of algal
biomass for the production of biofuel is becoming a new energy alternative on a global level (e.g.,
Chisti 2008; Wargacki et al. 2012). Nevertheless, although technology must be developed that permits
industrialized culture at a cost that is competitive with market prices and other biofuel sources (Maceiras
et al. 2011), acceptable levels of energetic efficiency must also be ensured (Walker 2009; Clarens
et al. 2010; Marquardt 2011) in order to develop an algal culture that is not only economically profitable,
but also achieves positive environmental externalities. Studies presented in this paragraph show how
different uses for algae are emerging, creating new demand for algal biomass, which should also improve
the profitability of aquaculture practices in the near future.
From another perspective, development of algal culture is associated with its use as a bioremediator
in eutrophication processes of coastal zones where aquaculture activities are undertaken, now referred to
as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (Chopin et al. 2008; Buschmann et al. 2008a). As an example, we
cite the fact that an algal culture is capable of reducing nitrogen emissions released into the environment
by 85% during an annual salmon production cycle; recognizing that this nutrient is the element that
produces the greatest impact in coastal eutrophication processes (Buschmann et al. 1996a; Troell et al.
1999). In Chile, various studies have been carried out on integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, testing
the capacity of red and brown algae to remove nitrogen and inorganic phosphorus (Troell et al. 1997;
Buschmann et al. 2008c; Abreu et al. 2009). Efficiency in the removal of dissolved inorganic material
requires, in relative terms, a large surface area of algae with respect to the surface area used by fish
(1 hectare of fish culture activities will require at least 100 hectares of Macrocystis to remove 80% of
the dissolved nitrogen inputs produced by the fish culture, Buschmann et al. 2008c); this relationship is
based, principally on the fact that fish culture occupies a given volume that is determined by cages that
reach depths of 10 or more meters, while, in the case of the algae, productivity depends on solar radiation
and, thus, use of the water column is very limited (Abreu et al. 2009). Many studies have been carried out
in the recent past, but still many key aspects towards the production and nutrient removal optimization
requires attention (Troell et al. 2003).
A regulatory policy framework is required that permits the promotion of the use of macroalgae for
bioremediation. This aspect is a key to allow that algal farming is perceived as an economically sustainable
environmental alternative (Chopin et al. 2001; Neori et al. 2007). Environmental valorization of algal
culture can be undertaken by internalization of the environmental costs (Buschmann et al. 1996b), or the
creation of culture incentives (Buschmann et al. 2008a) still remains to be developed. As the ecological
efficiency, sustainability and economics of culturing carnivorous fish are improved by growing them in
an ecological balance with species from low trophic levels in IMTA conditions (Neori and Nobre 2012)
a new regulatory framework seems necessary.
Although, some traditional activities have less economic vitality than in the past; new productive
alternatives have emerged (see previous paragraphs) that should enhance the development of algal culture
in Chile and other western countries. Production technologies are available for a variety of algae in Chile,
development of algal culture is still minimal, with low levels of diversification; this would appear to be
associated with a demand characterized by lower growth rates (Bixler and Porse 2011) and unattractive
prices (Buschmann et al. 2008b). Thus, it seems that, without some kind of incentive that encourages
changes in the structure of aquaculture production, progress will be difficult. On the other hand, from
the environmental point of view, the absence of economic incentives to reduce dissolved nutrient loads
in the water through use of macroalgae would also imply that such measures will not be implemented.
In the meantime, the only significant demand for biomass that can be identified is the potential of certain
species, especially Macrocystis, to be used for the production of bioethanol (Wargacki et al. 2012).
The Environmental Regulation for Aquaculture (Reglamento Ambiental de Acuicultura; RAMA),
regulates part of Chile’s aquaculture activities (Buschmann et al. 2013). This was approved in 2001 in the
value of phycocolloids, such as alginates in the production of more efficient batteries (Kovalenko et al.
2011), or other innovative uses, will necessity for algal culture increase, raising demand and improving
prices (see other examples in Kim 2012). In addition to the traditional use of seaweed as a source of
phycocolloids, the demand for seaweed, in particular Macrocystis as an ingredient in diet formulations
for animals, such as the case of abalone cultures (Flores-Aguilar et al. 2007), has generated greater
extraction restrictions for certain species in Chile (Vásquez 2008). On the other hand, the use of algal
biomass for the production of biofuel is becoming a new energy alternative on a global level (e.g.,
Chisti 2008; Wargacki et al. 2012). Nevertheless, although technology must be developed that permits
industrialized culture at a cost that is competitive with market prices and other biofuel sources (Maceiras
et al. 2011), acceptable levels of energetic efficiency must also be ensured (Walker 2009; Clarens
et al. 2010; Marquardt 2011) in order to develop an algal culture that is not only economically profitable,
but also achieves positive environmental externalities. Studies presented in this paragraph show how
different uses for algae are emerging, creating new demand for algal biomass, which should also improve
the profitability of aquaculture practices in the near future.
From another perspective, development of algal culture is associated with its use as a bioremediator
in eutrophication processes of coastal zones where aquaculture activities are undertaken, now referred to
as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (Chopin et al. 2008; Buschmann et al. 2008a). As an example, we
cite the fact that an algal culture is capable of reducing nitrogen emissions released into the environment
by 85% during an annual salmon production cycle; recognizing that this nutrient is the element that
produces the greatest impact in coastal eutrophication processes (Buschmann et al. 1996a; Troell et al.
1999). In Chile, various studies have been carried out on integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, testing
the capacity of red and brown algae to remove nitrogen and inorganic phosphorus (Troell et al. 1997;
Buschmann et al. 2008c; Abreu et al. 2009). Efficiency in the removal of dissolved inorganic material
requires, in relative terms, a large surface area of algae with respect to the surface area used by fish
(1 hectare of fish culture activities will require at least 100 hectares of Macrocystis to remove 80% of
the dissolved nitrogen inputs produced by the fish culture, Buschmann et al. 2008c); this relationship is
based, principally on the fact that fish culture occupies a given volume that is determined by cages that
reach depths of 10 or more meters, while, in the case of the algae, productivity depends on solar radiation
and, thus, use of the water column is very limited (Abreu et al. 2009). Many studies have been carried out
in the recent past, but still many key aspects towards the production and nutrient removal optimization
requires attention (Troell et al. 2003).
A regulatory policy framework is required that permits the promotion of the use of macroalgae for
bioremediation. This aspect is a key to allow that algal farming is perceived as an economically sustainable
environmental alternative (Chopin et al. 2001; Neori et al. 2007). Environmental valorization of algal
culture can be undertaken by internalization of the environmental costs (Buschmann et al. 1996b), or the
creation of culture incentives (Buschmann et al. 2008a) still remains to be developed. As the ecological
efficiency, sustainability and economics of culturing carnivorous fish are improved by growing them in
an ecological balance with species from low trophic levels in IMTA conditions (Neori and Nobre 2012)
a new regulatory framework seems necessary.
Although, some traditional activities have less economic vitality than in the past; new productive
alternatives have emerged (see previous paragraphs) that should enhance the development of algal culture
in Chile and other western countries. Production technologies are available for a variety of algae in Chile,
development of algal culture is still minimal, with low levels of diversification; this would appear to be
associated with a demand characterized by lower growth rates (Bixler and Porse 2011) and unattractive
prices (Buschmann et al. 2008b). Thus, it seems that, without some kind of incentive that encourages
changes in the structure of aquaculture production, progress will be difficult. On the other hand, from
the environmental point of view, the absence of economic incentives to reduce dissolved nutrient loads
in the water through use of macroalgae would also imply that such measures will not be implemented.
In the meantime, the only significant demand for biomass that can be identified is the potential of certain
species, especially Macrocystis, to be used for the production of bioethanol (Wargacki et al. 2012).
The Environmental Regulation for Aquaculture (Reglamento Ambiental de Acuicultura; RAMA),
regulates part of Chile’s aquaculture activities (Buschmann et al. 2013). This was approved in 2001 in the