Advances and Constraints of Seaweed Farming 83
blooms increases the oxygen demand resulting in loss of biodiversity, which can, eventually, decrease
the productive potential of aquaculture activities (Peckol and Rivers 1996). Many salmon culture centers
experience oxygen problems during certain seasons of the year. This phenomenon may not produce
mortality directly, but can induce stressful conditions to such an extent that they provoke reduced
immunological responses in fish, resulting in increased pathologies, which in turn, produce mortalities of
up to 50% (Bravo and Midtlying 2007; Bustos et al. 2011).
It is not possible to resolve the environmental problems described in the preceding paragraph by
merely increasing the use of drugs to control pathogens and parasites; an understanding of how the cultured
organisms interact with the environment is also required. Although the elevated level of antibiotics used
in Chilean aquaculture (Cabello et al. 2013) is related to the type and frequency of diseases, the high
dosages can also affect natural populations of coastal organisms (Fortt et al. 2007) and increase resistance
to antibiotics (Chelossi et al. 2003; Nonaka et al. 2007; Heuer et al. 2009; Buschmann et al. 2012).
Triggering epidemiological responses, such as the case of the ISA virus or other pathologies, that generate
an enormous economic and social impact, also implies a very significant environmental component that
cannot be ignored (Mardones et al. 2009). The problem cannot be alleviated solely by veterinary solutions
and the application of different therapeutics; prevalent environmental variables must also be clearly
defined. As a consequence, the solution lies in obtaining independent scientific information that permits,
on the one hand, clear and transparent identification of factors responsible for inducing and transferring
pathogens (natural and artificial) and the environmental problems involved. Therefore, the development
of production strategies is oriented towards reducing environmental consequences associated with the
culture of exclusively animal species, as well as reducing the production of inorganic nitrogen and the
resulting coastal eutrophication effects.
Considerable effort has been made in Chile to implement legislation that will resolve the most
pressing problems. Nevertheless, the question arises as to how the regulation is implemented and whether
it actively pursues and innovates in a context of establishing production models compromised with
achieving greater environmental sustainability. This regulation (RAMA; Aquaculture Environmental
Regulation) is based principally on the monitoring of sediments below the culture systems, using
detection of anaerobiosis (absence of oxygen according to the original normative), or low oxygen
concentration (according to the present normative), as a signal that generates contingency procedures
(Buschmann et al. 2013). Various efforts have been carried out to maintain a regulation that is up to
date and several important modifications have been undertaken from 2005 to date (see Buschmann et al.
2013 for a more comprehensive discussion). We believe that these topics require the express attention of
both the governmental sector and the productive sector. Evidently, detection of anoxic conditions is not
a sufficient indicator of environmental sustainability; this brings into question the quality of the current
regulation and does not significantly promote the search for solutions and technological alternatives that
secure a higher degree of sustainability for this activity (Buschmann et al. 2006b). Today, technological
solutions exist to deal with these issues (see Buschmann et al. 2008c), but still, improvements of
management practices to create more efficient are required (Diana et al. 2013). Nevertheless, the clear
and transparent identification and definition of environmental problems is necessary in order to apply
concrete and feasible solutions to each one of them. If these issues are addressed, Chile will be able
to integrate coherently into a global market that is progressively more demanding environmentally. In
the following section, we will deal with these issues in more depth, determine existing restrictions and
challenges affecting the development of more sustainable aquaculture, and evaluate the importance of
using algae to achieve this aim.
Future of seaweed farming in Chile
Although phycocolloid markets continue to expand on a global scale, growth over the last decade was
much lower than 20 years ago (Bixler and Porse 2011). During the past years, there has been a strong
competition for new markets affecting the value of seaweed and their associated products. Also, the
capacity of China and other oriental countries to produce Gracilaria biomass lower a lower costs, has
limit algal culture expansion in Chile. Only by discovering new applications that increase the aggregate
blooms increases the oxygen demand resulting in loss of biodiversity, which can, eventually, decrease
the productive potential of aquaculture activities (Peckol and Rivers 1996). Many salmon culture centers
experience oxygen problems during certain seasons of the year. This phenomenon may not produce
mortality directly, but can induce stressful conditions to such an extent that they provoke reduced
immunological responses in fish, resulting in increased pathologies, which in turn, produce mortalities of
up to 50% (Bravo and Midtlying 2007; Bustos et al. 2011).
It is not possible to resolve the environmental problems described in the preceding paragraph by
merely increasing the use of drugs to control pathogens and parasites; an understanding of how the cultured
organisms interact with the environment is also required. Although the elevated level of antibiotics used
in Chilean aquaculture (Cabello et al. 2013) is related to the type and frequency of diseases, the high
dosages can also affect natural populations of coastal organisms (Fortt et al. 2007) and increase resistance
to antibiotics (Chelossi et al. 2003; Nonaka et al. 2007; Heuer et al. 2009; Buschmann et al. 2012).
Triggering epidemiological responses, such as the case of the ISA virus or other pathologies, that generate
an enormous economic and social impact, also implies a very significant environmental component that
cannot be ignored (Mardones et al. 2009). The problem cannot be alleviated solely by veterinary solutions
and the application of different therapeutics; prevalent environmental variables must also be clearly
defined. As a consequence, the solution lies in obtaining independent scientific information that permits,
on the one hand, clear and transparent identification of factors responsible for inducing and transferring
pathogens (natural and artificial) and the environmental problems involved. Therefore, the development
of production strategies is oriented towards reducing environmental consequences associated with the
culture of exclusively animal species, as well as reducing the production of inorganic nitrogen and the
resulting coastal eutrophication effects.
Considerable effort has been made in Chile to implement legislation that will resolve the most
pressing problems. Nevertheless, the question arises as to how the regulation is implemented and whether
it actively pursues and innovates in a context of establishing production models compromised with
achieving greater environmental sustainability. This regulation (RAMA; Aquaculture Environmental
Regulation) is based principally on the monitoring of sediments below the culture systems, using
detection of anaerobiosis (absence of oxygen according to the original normative), or low oxygen
concentration (according to the present normative), as a signal that generates contingency procedures
(Buschmann et al. 2013). Various efforts have been carried out to maintain a regulation that is up to
date and several important modifications have been undertaken from 2005 to date (see Buschmann et al.
2013 for a more comprehensive discussion). We believe that these topics require the express attention of
both the governmental sector and the productive sector. Evidently, detection of anoxic conditions is not
a sufficient indicator of environmental sustainability; this brings into question the quality of the current
regulation and does not significantly promote the search for solutions and technological alternatives that
secure a higher degree of sustainability for this activity (Buschmann et al. 2006b). Today, technological
solutions exist to deal with these issues (see Buschmann et al. 2008c), but still, improvements of
management practices to create more efficient are required (Diana et al. 2013). Nevertheless, the clear
and transparent identification and definition of environmental problems is necessary in order to apply
concrete and feasible solutions to each one of them. If these issues are addressed, Chile will be able
to integrate coherently into a global market that is progressively more demanding environmentally. In
the following section, we will deal with these issues in more depth, determine existing restrictions and
challenges affecting the development of more sustainable aquaculture, and evaluate the importance of
using algae to achieve this aim.
Future of seaweed farming in Chile
Although phycocolloid markets continue to expand on a global scale, growth over the last decade was
much lower than 20 years ago (Bixler and Porse 2011). During the past years, there has been a strong
competition for new markets affecting the value of seaweed and their associated products. Also, the
capacity of China and other oriental countries to produce Gracilaria biomass lower a lower costs, has
limit algal culture expansion in Chile. Only by discovering new applications that increase the aggregate