The Cosmeceutical Properties of Compounds Derived from Marine Algae 209
distinct groups; ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA (or omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA). In particular, there is increasing
interest in a ω-3 PUFA, named eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 Δ
5,8,11,14,17
, 20:5 ω-3). EPA is a fatty
acid with 20 carbon atoms and five double bonds with the last double bond located at the third carbon
from the methyl end of the hydrocarbon chain (ω-3) (Nettleton 1995).
ω-3 PUFAs are synthesized from the essential fatty acid α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3, ω-3), whilst
ω-6 PUFAs are synthesized from the essential fatty acid precursor linoleic acid (LA, 18:2, ω-6) (Das
2006). Plants can insert double bonds between carbons 12 and 13 via conversion of oleic acid to LA by
Δ
12
-desaturase. Further desaturation can occur via the insertion by Δ
15
-desaturase of a double bond between
carbons 15 and 16 to form ALA. LA and ALA are essential fatty acids, since they cannot be synthesized
de novo in mammals, due to a genetic lack of Δ
12
and ∆
15
-desaturase. Therefore, LA and ALA must be
obtained from the diet. Marine microalgae and macroalgae (seaweeds) and certain microorganisms are
capable of de novo PUFA synthesis, and thus represent a good source of these fatty acids.
Pereira et al. recently investigated the PUFA content of 17 species of green, brown and red macroalgae.
They found the major PUFAs mainly consisted of C18 and C20 molecules (arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic,
and linoleic acids) with higher concentrations of PUFAs observed in brown and red macroalgae (Pereira et
al. 2012). Marine microalgae are an attractive source of PUFA as many of them have a high PUFA content
(Wood 1988), especially in the lipophilic extracts (Wood 1988; Li et al. 2002). PUFAs comprise a large
proportion of the total lipids in marine algae. For example, the PUFA concentration in the total lipids in
microalgae Tetraselmis suecica, Porphyridium cruentum, and Isochrysis galbana is 20.9%, 17.1%, and
17.0%, respectively (Servel et al. 1994). However, the actual fatty acid and PUFA concentration can vary
widely. The microalgae Tetraselmis suecica, Porphyridium cruentum and Isochrysis galbana have PUFA
concentrations of 0.5%, 0.3%, and 4.3% (dry weight), respectively. Examples of other microalgae species
with high PUFA content are Isochrysis galbana, Pavlova sp., and Nannochloropsis oceanica which have
concentrations of 3.99%, 3.98%, and 3.78% (dry weight), respectively (Patil et al. 2007).
PUFAs have essential structural and functional roles in tissues. They form the core structure of the
phospholipid bilayer in all cell membranes, regulating membrane fluidity and rigidity, electron and oxygen
transport, as well as thermal adaptation and cell signaling.
PUFAs are of interest in cosmetics as components of sun lotions and as regenerating and anti-wrinkle
agents in cosmetic products. They function by restoring the skin permeability barrier, preventing scaly
dermatitis and skin dehydration associated with a lack of unsaturated fatty acids in the skin (Servel et
al. 1994). Some of the PUFAs, such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid, are necessary for growth and
protection of the skin (Mansour et al. 1999). ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs are known to facilitate cell regeneration
and improvement in skin health. Most unsaturated fatty acids have good antioxidant activities (Henry et
al. 2002). Hence, given that algae is an abundant source of PUFAs, their use in cosmeceuticals as natural
antioxidative compounds has attracted much attention. However, the topical use of PUFAs in cosmetics and
topical skin formulations is still limited due to the formation of malodorous secondary oxidation products.
Mycosporine-like amino acids
Continuous depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer has resulted in an increase in the intensity
of UV radiation; that is, UVB irradiation (280–315 nm) and to some extent UVA irradiation
(315–400 nm). Exposure from UVB and UVA radiation is considered unfavorable for living matter, and
different protecting strategies have accordingly been developed to cope with their impact (Sachindra et
al. 2007). As a result, a number of photosynthetic organisms have developed mechanisms to reduce the
toxicity and damaging effects of UV radiation (Singh et al. 2008). These mechanisms include repair of
UV induced damage of DNA, accumulation of carotenoids, detoxifying enzymes, radical scavengers and
antioxidants, and synthesis of UV absorbing compounds, such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs).
MAAs form the most common class of UVA absorbing compounds, and occur widely in various marine
organisms (Yang et al. 2012). The synthesis of scytonemin, a predominant UVA photoprotective pigment,
is mostly reported in cyanobacteria. Carotenoids have both light-harvesting and photoprotective potential,
either by direct quenching of the singlet oxygen and other ROS, or as a UVB absorbing compound.
distinct groups; ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA (or omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA). In particular, there is increasing
interest in a ω-3 PUFA, named eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 Δ
5,8,11,14,17
, 20:5 ω-3). EPA is a fatty
acid with 20 carbon atoms and five double bonds with the last double bond located at the third carbon
from the methyl end of the hydrocarbon chain (ω-3) (Nettleton 1995).
ω-3 PUFAs are synthesized from the essential fatty acid α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3, ω-3), whilst
ω-6 PUFAs are synthesized from the essential fatty acid precursor linoleic acid (LA, 18:2, ω-6) (Das
2006). Plants can insert double bonds between carbons 12 and 13 via conversion of oleic acid to LA by
Δ
12
-desaturase. Further desaturation can occur via the insertion by Δ
15
-desaturase of a double bond between
carbons 15 and 16 to form ALA. LA and ALA are essential fatty acids, since they cannot be synthesized
de novo in mammals, due to a genetic lack of Δ
12
and ∆
15
-desaturase. Therefore, LA and ALA must be
obtained from the diet. Marine microalgae and macroalgae (seaweeds) and certain microorganisms are
capable of de novo PUFA synthesis, and thus represent a good source of these fatty acids.
Pereira et al. recently investigated the PUFA content of 17 species of green, brown and red macroalgae.
They found the major PUFAs mainly consisted of C18 and C20 molecules (arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic,
and linoleic acids) with higher concentrations of PUFAs observed in brown and red macroalgae (Pereira et
al. 2012). Marine microalgae are an attractive source of PUFA as many of them have a high PUFA content
(Wood 1988), especially in the lipophilic extracts (Wood 1988; Li et al. 2002). PUFAs comprise a large
proportion of the total lipids in marine algae. For example, the PUFA concentration in the total lipids in
microalgae Tetraselmis suecica, Porphyridium cruentum, and Isochrysis galbana is 20.9%, 17.1%, and
17.0%, respectively (Servel et al. 1994). However, the actual fatty acid and PUFA concentration can vary
widely. The microalgae Tetraselmis suecica, Porphyridium cruentum and Isochrysis galbana have PUFA
concentrations of 0.5%, 0.3%, and 4.3% (dry weight), respectively. Examples of other microalgae species
with high PUFA content are Isochrysis galbana, Pavlova sp., and Nannochloropsis oceanica which have
concentrations of 3.99%, 3.98%, and 3.78% (dry weight), respectively (Patil et al. 2007).
PUFAs have essential structural and functional roles in tissues. They form the core structure of the
phospholipid bilayer in all cell membranes, regulating membrane fluidity and rigidity, electron and oxygen
transport, as well as thermal adaptation and cell signaling.
PUFAs are of interest in cosmetics as components of sun lotions and as regenerating and anti-wrinkle
agents in cosmetic products. They function by restoring the skin permeability barrier, preventing scaly
dermatitis and skin dehydration associated with a lack of unsaturated fatty acids in the skin (Servel et
al. 1994). Some of the PUFAs, such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid, are necessary for growth and
protection of the skin (Mansour et al. 1999). ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs are known to facilitate cell regeneration
and improvement in skin health. Most unsaturated fatty acids have good antioxidant activities (Henry et
al. 2002). Hence, given that algae is an abundant source of PUFAs, their use in cosmeceuticals as natural
antioxidative compounds has attracted much attention. However, the topical use of PUFAs in cosmetics and
topical skin formulations is still limited due to the formation of malodorous secondary oxidation products.
Mycosporine-like amino acids
Continuous depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer has resulted in an increase in the intensity
of UV radiation; that is, UVB irradiation (280–315 nm) and to some extent UVA irradiation
(315–400 nm). Exposure from UVB and UVA radiation is considered unfavorable for living matter, and
different protecting strategies have accordingly been developed to cope with their impact (Sachindra et
al. 2007). As a result, a number of photosynthetic organisms have developed mechanisms to reduce the
toxicity and damaging effects of UV radiation (Singh et al. 2008). These mechanisms include repair of
UV induced damage of DNA, accumulation of carotenoids, detoxifying enzymes, radical scavengers and
antioxidants, and synthesis of UV absorbing compounds, such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs).
MAAs form the most common class of UVA absorbing compounds, and occur widely in various marine
organisms (Yang et al. 2012). The synthesis of scytonemin, a predominant UVA photoprotective pigment,
is mostly reported in cyanobacteria. Carotenoids have both light-harvesting and photoprotective potential,
either by direct quenching of the singlet oxygen and other ROS, or as a UVB absorbing compound.