206 Marine Macro- and Microalgae: An Overview
alga Laurencia undulata, show significant antioxidant capacity and are potential inhibitors of MMP-2 and
MMP-9 (gelatinase A and gelatinase B). Gelatinases, especially MMP-2 and MMP-9, degrade basement
membrane collagens and denatured structural collagens (Philips et al. 2011).
The gelatinases, which include MMP-2 and MMP-9, promote UV-induced skin damage. It is reported
that sun-damaged skin shows significantly elevated levels of active gelatinases (MMP-2 and -9) when
compared to intrinsically aged skin (Chung et al. 2001). Ryu et al. (2009) conducted in vitro studies on
methanol extracts from marine alga Corallina pilulifera and showed they were able to prevent UV-induced
oxidative stress, and also expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells. This
suggests that many phenolic compounds from marine algae may be useful as actives in sunscreen and
anti-photoageing skin formulations (Ryu et al. 2009).
Hyperpigmentation disorders that are associated with abnormal accumulation of melanin pigments can
be improved by treatment with de-pigmenting agents. Melanin reducing compounds that inhibit tyrosinase,
an oxidase responsible for the first step in melanin biosynthesis, are the most promising for preventing and
treating pigmentation disorders, as well as acting as effective skin-whitening agents. Fucoidan fractions
have been found to inhibit tyrosinase (Kang et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2012; Song et al. 2015). Recent work
has shown that the melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity in B16F10 melanoma cells were decreased
in a dose-dependent manner, when treated by fucoidans, as compared to the control (Jung et al. 2009).
Low molecular weight fucoidan fractions, obtained using acidic hydrolysis, are also considered to
be plant homologues of mammalian heparin due to their heparin-like properties. Although low molecular
weight fucoidans and mammalian heparin belong to different polysaccharide families with different sugar
back bones, both molecules are highly sulfated and they both exhibit fibrinolytic and anticoagulant activities
(Berteau and Mulloy 2003) and are able to potentiate activity of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TFG-β1)
protein (Soeda et al. 1992; McCaffrey et al. 1994; Halloran 1996; O’Leary et al. 2004). The two families of
polysaccharide, however, are different. For example, both fucoidan and heparin exhibit anti-proliferative
effects on vascu lar smooth muscle, but the activity follows subtly different mechanisms. Heparin is
usually formulated into topical lotions for the treatment of bruises where it acts as a fibrinolytic agent.
Its activity in skin is in part modulated by growth factor potentiation. Heparin is an essential cofactor for
growth factor activities, including that of fibroblast growth factor. TFG-β proteins are important regulators
of wound healing and exert diverse and potent effects on proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular
matrix synthesis. Fucoidans have been shown to modulate the effects of a variety of growth factors through
mechanisms of action similar to heparin. Irregular wound healing will cause either scarring or chronic
wounds. Therefore, there is a considerable interest in agents which can modulate certain aspects of the
wound healing process. It has been found that preparations of fucoidan, as well as heparin inhibit fibroblast
proliferation at concentrations from 0.01 to 100 mg/mL through interaction with transforming growth factor
TGF-β1. These results show the potential of fucoidans as important wound healing agents. When compared
to heparin, fucoidans may be a better choice in cosmeceuticals, such as after sun products, allergic skin
condition soothing products, or specialty postsurgical products due to their greater stability (Teixeira and
Hellewell 1997). Fucoidans are also effective inhibitors of chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), critical
regulators of cell migration in the context of immune surveillance, inflammation, and development; and
inhibit accumulation of eosinophils in models of allergic skin inflammation. Topical heparin is useful as a
treatment in burns, where modula tion of the CXCR4 interaction may result in superior healing.
Due to their anti-inflammatory properties, fucoidans have poten tial for use in both topical and oral
anti-inflammatory products as they are a potent inhibitor of enzyme phospholipases A2 (Marcussi et al.
2007). Phospholipases A2 PLA2s catalyze the hydrolysis of fatty esters in the 2-position of 3-phospholipid
to release fatty acid and lysophospholipid. The fatty acid so formed may act as either second messenger
or a precursor of eicosanoids, which are lipid mediators of inflammatory reactions, such as prostaglandins
(PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs).
Alginates
Alginate is a polysaccharide that was first extracted from brown algae by Stanford in 1881 (Stanford
1883). He named the substance algin after the Latin word for alga, meaning seaweed. Alginic acid
alga Laurencia undulata, show significant antioxidant capacity and are potential inhibitors of MMP-2 and
MMP-9 (gelatinase A and gelatinase B). Gelatinases, especially MMP-2 and MMP-9, degrade basement
membrane collagens and denatured structural collagens (Philips et al. 2011).
The gelatinases, which include MMP-2 and MMP-9, promote UV-induced skin damage. It is reported
that sun-damaged skin shows significantly elevated levels of active gelatinases (MMP-2 and -9) when
compared to intrinsically aged skin (Chung et al. 2001). Ryu et al. (2009) conducted in vitro studies on
methanol extracts from marine alga Corallina pilulifera and showed they were able to prevent UV-induced
oxidative stress, and also expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells. This
suggests that many phenolic compounds from marine algae may be useful as actives in sunscreen and
anti-photoageing skin formulations (Ryu et al. 2009).
Hyperpigmentation disorders that are associated with abnormal accumulation of melanin pigments can
be improved by treatment with de-pigmenting agents. Melanin reducing compounds that inhibit tyrosinase,
an oxidase responsible for the first step in melanin biosynthesis, are the most promising for preventing and
treating pigmentation disorders, as well as acting as effective skin-whitening agents. Fucoidan fractions
have been found to inhibit tyrosinase (Kang et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2012; Song et al. 2015). Recent work
has shown that the melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity in B16F10 melanoma cells were decreased
in a dose-dependent manner, when treated by fucoidans, as compared to the control (Jung et al. 2009).
Low molecular weight fucoidan fractions, obtained using acidic hydrolysis, are also considered to
be plant homologues of mammalian heparin due to their heparin-like properties. Although low molecular
weight fucoidans and mammalian heparin belong to different polysaccharide families with different sugar
back bones, both molecules are highly sulfated and they both exhibit fibrinolytic and anticoagulant activities
(Berteau and Mulloy 2003) and are able to potentiate activity of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TFG-β1)
protein (Soeda et al. 1992; McCaffrey et al. 1994; Halloran 1996; O’Leary et al. 2004). The two families of
polysaccharide, however, are different. For example, both fucoidan and heparin exhibit anti-proliferative
effects on vascu lar smooth muscle, but the activity follows subtly different mechanisms. Heparin is
usually formulated into topical lotions for the treatment of bruises where it acts as a fibrinolytic agent.
Its activity in skin is in part modulated by growth factor potentiation. Heparin is an essential cofactor for
growth factor activities, including that of fibroblast growth factor. TFG-β proteins are important regulators
of wound healing and exert diverse and potent effects on proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular
matrix synthesis. Fucoidans have been shown to modulate the effects of a variety of growth factors through
mechanisms of action similar to heparin. Irregular wound healing will cause either scarring or chronic
wounds. Therefore, there is a considerable interest in agents which can modulate certain aspects of the
wound healing process. It has been found that preparations of fucoidan, as well as heparin inhibit fibroblast
proliferation at concentrations from 0.01 to 100 mg/mL through interaction with transforming growth factor
TGF-β1. These results show the potential of fucoidans as important wound healing agents. When compared
to heparin, fucoidans may be a better choice in cosmeceuticals, such as after sun products, allergic skin
condition soothing products, or specialty postsurgical products due to their greater stability (Teixeira and
Hellewell 1997). Fucoidans are also effective inhibitors of chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), critical
regulators of cell migration in the context of immune surveillance, inflammation, and development; and
inhibit accumulation of eosinophils in models of allergic skin inflammation. Topical heparin is useful as a
treatment in burns, where modula tion of the CXCR4 interaction may result in superior healing.
Due to their anti-inflammatory properties, fucoidans have poten tial for use in both topical and oral
anti-inflammatory products as they are a potent inhibitor of enzyme phospholipases A2 (Marcussi et al.
2007). Phospholipases A2 PLA2s catalyze the hydrolysis of fatty esters in the 2-position of 3-phospholipid
to release fatty acid and lysophospholipid. The fatty acid so formed may act as either second messenger
or a precursor of eicosanoids, which are lipid mediators of inflammatory reactions, such as prostaglandins
(PGs) and leukotrienes (LTs).
Alginates
Alginate is a polysaccharide that was first extracted from brown algae by Stanford in 1881 (Stanford
1883). He named the substance algin after the Latin word for alga, meaning seaweed. Alginic acid