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Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society
ENABLING DISCOVERY IN SOLAR AND SPACE PHYSICS
23
Earth’s star is far more complex and variable than it appears to the naked eye in the daytime sky. (See
Figure 1.3.) Sunspots as large as several Earths dot the surface with intense magnetic fields thousands of
times stronger than the average background field. Each active region on the Sun can grow, decay, and
reorganize on timescales of minutes to months, and collectively the spots emerge in groups that define the
roughly 11-year activity cycle and 22-year magnetic cycle of the Sun. The typical solar wind speed and
solar irradiance vary in concert with the cycle. As often as three times per day during solar maximum, the
sive track record. The new providers promise significant cost savings; however, the high launch demand from
government customers that would allow for such savings is by no means guaranteed, especially in the austere
budget environment that is anticipated for at least the next several years, and despite 24 planned launches on
SpaceX’s manifest from commercial industry customers through 2017.
Noncommercial vehicles (e.g., Minotaur) exist that are capable of launching Delta II-class payloads, but the
Commercial Space Act 9 precludes their use absent special dispensation (e.g., use of the Minotaur for a non-DOD
payload requires a waiver from the Secretary of Defense). International launch vehicles (e.g., Ariane, H-II) are
also widely available; however, international launch vehicles would require a partnership arrangement with a
foreign agency and no exchange of funds.
The need for reliable and affordable access to space is by no means new or unique to NASA’s Earth science
program. The loss in 2009 and 2011 of two NASA Earth science missions due to launch vehicle failures, however,
underscores the urgency of addressing the need.
NOTE: Unless indicated otherwise, the information supplied here was current as of Spring 2012.
1 See NASA, “NASA Awards Launch Services Contracts,” press release, September 16, 2010, available at http://www.nasa.gov/home/
hqnews/2010/sep/C10-053_Launch_Services_Contract.html. NOTE: This contract was amended in May and June 2012, respectively, to add
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Orbital Sciences’ Antares launch vehicles.
2 See NASA, “NASA Modifies Launch Service Contract to Add Falcon 9 Rocket,” press release, May 14, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.
gov/home/hqnews/2012/may/HQ_C12-019_NLS_Falcon_9.html.
3 See NASA, “NASA Adds Orbital’s Antares to Launch Services II Contract,” press release, June 26, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.gov/
home/hqnews/2012/jun/HQ_C12-027_NLS_II_mod.html.
4 See NASA, “NASA Modifies Launch Service Contract to Add Delta II Rocket,” press release, September 30, 2011, available at http://www.
nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/sep/HQ_C11-044_Delta_Ramp.html.
5 See NASA, “NASA Launch Services Manifest,” available at http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/315550main_NASA%20FPB%2007_24_12%20
Manifest%20Release%2008_01_2012_508.pdf, accessed October 9, 2012. IRIS was launched in late June 2013.
6 Production of the Falcon 1 was suspended in 2011; see G. Norris, “SpaceX Puts Falcon 1 on Ice,” Aviation Week, September 28, 2011,
available at http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/asd_09_28_2011_p01-01-375285.xml.
7 See SpaceX, “Launch Manifest,” available at http://www.spacex.com/launch_manifest.php, accessed October 9, 2012.
8 See NASA, “NASA Selects Launch Services Contract for Jason-3 Mission,” press release, July 16, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.gov/
home/hqnews/2012/jul/HQ_C12-029_RSLP-20_Launch_Services.html.
9 See Public Law 105-303, available at http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/commercial/CommercialSpaceActof1998.html. To use a Minotaur,
the NASA administrator must obtain approval from the secretary of defense and certify to Congress that use of a noncommercial launch
vehicle will result in cost savings to the federal government, meet all mission requirements, and be consistent with international obligations of the United States.
SOURCE: Material presented here is drawn from National Research Council, Earth Science and Applications from Space: A Midterm Assessment
of NASA’s Implementation of the Decadal Survey, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2012.
Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society
ENABLING DISCOVERY IN SOLAR AND SPACE PHYSICS
23
Earth’s star is far more complex and variable than it appears to the naked eye in the daytime sky. (See
Figure 1.3.) Sunspots as large as several Earths dot the surface with intense magnetic fields thousands of
times stronger than the average background field. Each active region on the Sun can grow, decay, and
reorganize on timescales of minutes to months, and collectively the spots emerge in groups that define the
roughly 11-year activity cycle and 22-year magnetic cycle of the Sun. The typical solar wind speed and
solar irradiance vary in concert with the cycle. As often as three times per day during solar maximum, the
sive track record. The new providers promise significant cost savings; however, the high launch demand from
government customers that would allow for such savings is by no means guaranteed, especially in the austere
budget environment that is anticipated for at least the next several years, and despite 24 planned launches on
SpaceX’s manifest from commercial industry customers through 2017.
Noncommercial vehicles (e.g., Minotaur) exist that are capable of launching Delta II-class payloads, but the
Commercial Space Act 9 precludes their use absent special dispensation (e.g., use of the Minotaur for a non-DOD
payload requires a waiver from the Secretary of Defense). International launch vehicles (e.g., Ariane, H-II) are
also widely available; however, international launch vehicles would require a partnership arrangement with a
foreign agency and no exchange of funds.
The need for reliable and affordable access to space is by no means new or unique to NASA’s Earth science
program. The loss in 2009 and 2011 of two NASA Earth science missions due to launch vehicle failures, however,
underscores the urgency of addressing the need.
NOTE: Unless indicated otherwise, the information supplied here was current as of Spring 2012.
1 See NASA, “NASA Awards Launch Services Contracts,” press release, September 16, 2010, available at http://www.nasa.gov/home/
hqnews/2010/sep/C10-053_Launch_Services_Contract.html. NOTE: This contract was amended in May and June 2012, respectively, to add
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 and Orbital Sciences’ Antares launch vehicles.
2 See NASA, “NASA Modifies Launch Service Contract to Add Falcon 9 Rocket,” press release, May 14, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.
gov/home/hqnews/2012/may/HQ_C12-019_NLS_Falcon_9.html.
3 See NASA, “NASA Adds Orbital’s Antares to Launch Services II Contract,” press release, June 26, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.gov/
home/hqnews/2012/jun/HQ_C12-027_NLS_II_mod.html.
4 See NASA, “NASA Modifies Launch Service Contract to Add Delta II Rocket,” press release, September 30, 2011, available at http://www.
nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/sep/HQ_C11-044_Delta_Ramp.html.
5 See NASA, “NASA Launch Services Manifest,” available at http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/315550main_NASA%20FPB%2007_24_12%20
Manifest%20Release%2008_01_2012_508.pdf, accessed October 9, 2012. IRIS was launched in late June 2013.
6 Production of the Falcon 1 was suspended in 2011; see G. Norris, “SpaceX Puts Falcon 1 on Ice,” Aviation Week, September 28, 2011,
available at http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/asd_09_28_2011_p01-01-375285.xml.
7 See SpaceX, “Launch Manifest,” available at http://www.spacex.com/launch_manifest.php, accessed October 9, 2012.
8 See NASA, “NASA Selects Launch Services Contract for Jason-3 Mission,” press release, July 16, 2012, available at http://www.nasa.gov/
home/hqnews/2012/jul/HQ_C12-029_RSLP-20_Launch_Services.html.
9 See Public Law 105-303, available at http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/commercial/CommercialSpaceActof1998.html. To use a Minotaur,
the NASA administrator must obtain approval from the secretary of defense and certify to Congress that use of a noncommercial launch
vehicle will result in cost savings to the federal government, meet all mission requirements, and be consistent with international obligations of the United States.
SOURCE: Material presented here is drawn from National Research Council, Earth Science and Applications from Space: A Midterm Assessment
of NASA’s Implementation of the Decadal Survey, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2012.