262
From 2002 to 2013, Israel invested nearly 2.8 billion New Israel shekel (NIS)
(approx. USD 734 million) in wastewater infrastructure and wastewater reclamation
plants. Another 1.5 billion NIS (USD 393 million) will be invested in the near
future. Not only were 100 water treatment plants built or upgraded, but a separate
wastewater pipeline network, including a 90 km pipeline to the Negev, had to be
built for the country (Israel Water Authority 2014a ). In 2012, agriculture used
429 × 10
6 m
3 of recycled wastewater ( ibid. ). For 2014, it was required that 50 % of
the agricultural water uses should come from recycled wastewater; according to the
National Water Plan, this share is supposed to rise to more than 90 % by 2050 (Israel
Water Authority 2012b ). The rest will fl ow back to nature.
Stringent effl uent quality standards came into effect in 2010. The regulations set
maximum levels for dissolved and suspended elements and compounds and for 36
other parameters regarding effl uents (European Environment Agency 2014 ). They
came into effect to minimise the risk of soil and groundwater contamination by the
use of wastewater for irrigation.
Apparently there is a confl ict of interest between agriculture and environmental
protection about the use of treated wastewater effl uents. In the summer of 2014, the
Israel Water Authority did not permit the use of treated wastewater for the rehabilitation of the Kishon River in the Haifa area. The Ministry of Environmental Protection
had to suspend further river rehabilitation plans because of the decision of the Israel
Water Authority (Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection 2014 ). This example
might also illustrate a lack of coherence between the river rehabilitation plans and
the national water management plans issued by the Israel Water Authority.
Environmentalists have criticised the partial dumping of the remaining sludge
into the Mediterranean. The sludge from the Shafdan sewage plant contributes at
least 75 % and up to 98 % of the total load to the Israeli marine environment. It is
planned that this source will be terminated by the end of 2015 (European Environment
Agency 2014 ).
16.6 Economic Instruments and Incentives
As a consequence of the restructuring of the water management institutions, the
Israel Water Authority was able to considerably increase the prices for domestic
water uses. The Israel Water Authority signed an agreement with the agricultural
representatives that in 2015 the full cost recovery for agricultural water uses should
be introduced. So far low water prices for the agricultural sector were crosssubsidised by higher water prices for domestic uses.
The water prices in Israel are set as a part of the general water law. The Israel Water
Authority is responsible for establishing the water prices, and it does so according to
the rules set by the Ministry of Finance, the Prime Minister’s Offi ce and the Ministry
of National Infrastructures, Energy and Water Resources (Water.org.il 2014 ).
The current model for establishing the water prices is based on three main principles (Israel Water Authority 2014a ):
C. Bismuth et al.
From 2002 to 2013, Israel invested nearly 2.8 billion New Israel shekel (NIS)
(approx. USD 734 million) in wastewater infrastructure and wastewater reclamation
plants. Another 1.5 billion NIS (USD 393 million) will be invested in the near
future. Not only were 100 water treatment plants built or upgraded, but a separate
wastewater pipeline network, including a 90 km pipeline to the Negev, had to be
built for the country (Israel Water Authority 2014a ). In 2012, agriculture used
429 × 10
6 m
3 of recycled wastewater ( ibid. ). For 2014, it was required that 50 % of
the agricultural water uses should come from recycled wastewater; according to the
National Water Plan, this share is supposed to rise to more than 90 % by 2050 (Israel
Water Authority 2012b ). The rest will fl ow back to nature.
Stringent effl uent quality standards came into effect in 2010. The regulations set
maximum levels for dissolved and suspended elements and compounds and for 36
other parameters regarding effl uents (European Environment Agency 2014 ). They
came into effect to minimise the risk of soil and groundwater contamination by the
use of wastewater for irrigation.
Apparently there is a confl ict of interest between agriculture and environmental
protection about the use of treated wastewater effl uents. In the summer of 2014, the
Israel Water Authority did not permit the use of treated wastewater for the rehabilitation of the Kishon River in the Haifa area. The Ministry of Environmental Protection
had to suspend further river rehabilitation plans because of the decision of the Israel
Water Authority (Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection 2014 ). This example
might also illustrate a lack of coherence between the river rehabilitation plans and
the national water management plans issued by the Israel Water Authority.
Environmentalists have criticised the partial dumping of the remaining sludge
into the Mediterranean. The sludge from the Shafdan sewage plant contributes at
least 75 % and up to 98 % of the total load to the Israeli marine environment. It is
planned that this source will be terminated by the end of 2015 (European Environment
Agency 2014 ).
16.6 Economic Instruments and Incentives
As a consequence of the restructuring of the water management institutions, the
Israel Water Authority was able to considerably increase the prices for domestic
water uses. The Israel Water Authority signed an agreement with the agricultural
representatives that in 2015 the full cost recovery for agricultural water uses should
be introduced. So far low water prices for the agricultural sector were crosssubsidised by higher water prices for domestic uses.
The water prices in Israel are set as a part of the general water law. The Israel Water
Authority is responsible for establishing the water prices, and it does so according to
the rules set by the Ministry of Finance, the Prime Minister’s Offi ce and the Ministry
of National Infrastructures, Energy and Water Resources (Water.org.il 2014 ).
The current model for establishing the water prices is based on three main principles (Israel Water Authority 2014a ):
C. Bismuth et al.