23 Inline and Online Process Analytical Technology with an Outlook …
577
It would go beyond the scope of this short presentation to describe in detail all
the products that can be produced. In order to understand the challenges of in-line
control using NIR spectroscopy, some characteristic features of the main products
are listed below.
23.6.1.2 Selected Products from a Refinery
This paragraph is just a short summary of the publications of two extended reviews
[62, 63].
Crude oil:
Crude oil is a highly complex mixture of hydrocarbons and heteroatomic organic
compounds with different molecular weights and polarities. Crude oil is converted
into many different products through a combination of physical and chemical
processes, collectively known as refining. The first stage of a refining process is the
fractional distillation of crude oil, in which the crude oil is split into several components with different boiling ranges, such as gases, straight-run gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, gas oil, and atmospheric residue (AR). Straight-run gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, and gas oil, whose boiling temperatures range from 30 to about 400 °C,
are clear liquids and can be easily measured by NIR spectroscopy. Atmospheric
residue, which has a boiling temperature of about 350 to 800 °C, is used as the main
fuel for power plants, ships, and large heating systems. It is almost black and very
viscous (even solid at room temperature) and is therefore difficult to handle and
measure [62, 63].
Gasoline:
The composition of petrol is a complex mixture of C4 to C9 hydrocarbons with a
boiling range of 30–210 °C. It consists of more than 150 individual components of
hydrocarbons. Petrol is characterized, for example, by octane number, Reid vapor
pressure (RVP), aromatic content, benzene content and the content of oxygenates
(e.g., MTBE, methyl tert-butyl ether) [62, 63].
Diesel:
Diesel is similar to petrol but is a mixed product with longer hydrocarbon chains.
The important properties are cetane number, distillation temperature, pour point, and
cold filter plugging point (CFPP). The main components of diesel are light gas oil
(LGO: C13-C18, boiling point 250–350 °C) and kerosene (C9-C15, boiling point
190–250 °C). These have much higher molecular weights than the components of
petrol. The pour point is controlled by adding a very small amount (100–500 ppm)
of an additive, a so-called cold flow enhancer [62, 63].
Naphtha:
Naphtha is one of the most important materials in the petrochemical industry and
is used as a basic material for the production of ethylene and benzene, toluene,
577
It would go beyond the scope of this short presentation to describe in detail all
the products that can be produced. In order to understand the challenges of in-line
control using NIR spectroscopy, some characteristic features of the main products
are listed below.
23.6.1.2 Selected Products from a Refinery
This paragraph is just a short summary of the publications of two extended reviews
[62, 63].
Crude oil:
Crude oil is a highly complex mixture of hydrocarbons and heteroatomic organic
compounds with different molecular weights and polarities. Crude oil is converted
into many different products through a combination of physical and chemical
processes, collectively known as refining. The first stage of a refining process is the
fractional distillation of crude oil, in which the crude oil is split into several components with different boiling ranges, such as gases, straight-run gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, gas oil, and atmospheric residue (AR). Straight-run gasoline, naphtha,
kerosene, and gas oil, whose boiling temperatures range from 30 to about 400 °C,
are clear liquids and can be easily measured by NIR spectroscopy. Atmospheric
residue, which has a boiling temperature of about 350 to 800 °C, is used as the main
fuel for power plants, ships, and large heating systems. It is almost black and very
viscous (even solid at room temperature) and is therefore difficult to handle and
measure [62, 63].
Gasoline:
The composition of petrol is a complex mixture of C4 to C9 hydrocarbons with a
boiling range of 30–210 °C. It consists of more than 150 individual components of
hydrocarbons. Petrol is characterized, for example, by octane number, Reid vapor
pressure (RVP), aromatic content, benzene content and the content of oxygenates
(e.g., MTBE, methyl tert-butyl ether) [62, 63].
Diesel:
Diesel is similar to petrol but is a mixed product with longer hydrocarbon chains.
The important properties are cetane number, distillation temperature, pour point, and
cold filter plugging point (CFPP). The main components of diesel are light gas oil
(LGO: C13-C18, boiling point 250–350 °C) and kerosene (C9-C15, boiling point
190–250 °C). These have much higher molecular weights than the components of
petrol. The pour point is controlled by adding a very small amount (100–500 ppm)
of an additive, a so-called cold flow enhancer [62, 63].
Naphtha:
Naphtha is one of the most important materials in the petrochemical industry and
is used as a basic material for the production of ethylene and benzene, toluene,