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individual have towards a valued object, e.g. environment, and (2) imagery, what are
the visual and mental representations related to environment, what is the mental
model that accommodates those visual representations of a valued object, e.g. environment. It is important to stress the value of experiential processing instead of
focusing solely on rational analytic models or abstract learning in classrooms. The
impact of direct experience does not always work towards fostering proenvironmental behaviours. For example, Whitmarsh claims that her research conducted in the south of England ‘indicate flood victims differ very little from other
participants in their understanding of and responses to climate change, but that
experience of air pollution does significantly affect perceptions of and behavioural
responses to climate change (Whitmarsh 2008, p. 351)’. Thus, Education for
Environmental Citizenship should also examine the preexisting mental models and
work with cases that have the highest direct influence; meaning that they raise
affect, provide with images and are easily implanted into the already existing mental
models of school children.
8.3.2 Attitude-, Value- and Norm-Oriented Models
The role of knowledge is considered to be important but not as the only crucial factor. Several models highlight the role of the affective domain, and a significant body
of theoretical and empirical literature in social psychology addresses the role of
values in human behaviour. Three fundamental types of value orientation are identified: egoistic values (self-interest; environmental concern stems from the impact of
the environment on one’s self, self-oriented goals and people important to the individual), social/human altruism (the scope of concern is humanity) and biospheric/
ecocentric altruism (the scope of moral consideration is towards other species and
the state of ecosystems, i.e. nature’s well-being) (de Groot and Steg 2008; Schultz
2001). Egoistic values and human altruism reflect an anthropocentric ethic, while in
a biospheric value orientation, moral consideration of nature is independent of services it provides for humans – an ecocentric orientation.
One of the most applied models of environmental behaviour in social psychology is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991). The underlying
assumption is that people behave rationally; decision-making is guided by rational
evaluation of perceived positive and negative consequences. According to the TPB
theory, the intention (i.e. plan) to act in a certain way is the strongest predictor of
actual behaviour, and this intention is in turn determined by attitudes towards the
behaviour, subjectively perceived norms that the actor perceives in their social environment and the perceived behavioural control of the actor (Fig. 8.5). Thus, attitudes do not determine behaviour directly but indirectly through behavioural
intention. Behavioural intentions are shaped not only by attitudes but also by social
norms. Within this theory, attitudes can be understood as positive or negative evaluations of the behaviour and its consequences based on personal outcome beliefs and
outcome evaluations. Subjective norms capture the expectations of important others
8 Education for Environmental Citizenship and Responsible Environmental Behaviour
individual have towards a valued object, e.g. environment, and (2) imagery, what are
the visual and mental representations related to environment, what is the mental
model that accommodates those visual representations of a valued object, e.g. environment. It is important to stress the value of experiential processing instead of
focusing solely on rational analytic models or abstract learning in classrooms. The
impact of direct experience does not always work towards fostering proenvironmental behaviours. For example, Whitmarsh claims that her research conducted in the south of England ‘indicate flood victims differ very little from other
participants in their understanding of and responses to climate change, but that
experience of air pollution does significantly affect perceptions of and behavioural
responses to climate change (Whitmarsh 2008, p. 351)’. Thus, Education for
Environmental Citizenship should also examine the preexisting mental models and
work with cases that have the highest direct influence; meaning that they raise
affect, provide with images and are easily implanted into the already existing mental
models of school children.
8.3.2 Attitude-, Value- and Norm-Oriented Models
The role of knowledge is considered to be important but not as the only crucial factor. Several models highlight the role of the affective domain, and a significant body
of theoretical and empirical literature in social psychology addresses the role of
values in human behaviour. Three fundamental types of value orientation are identified: egoistic values (self-interest; environmental concern stems from the impact of
the environment on one’s self, self-oriented goals and people important to the individual), social/human altruism (the scope of concern is humanity) and biospheric/
ecocentric altruism (the scope of moral consideration is towards other species and
the state of ecosystems, i.e. nature’s well-being) (de Groot and Steg 2008; Schultz
2001). Egoistic values and human altruism reflect an anthropocentric ethic, while in
a biospheric value orientation, moral consideration of nature is independent of services it provides for humans – an ecocentric orientation.
One of the most applied models of environmental behaviour in social psychology is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen (1991). The underlying
assumption is that people behave rationally; decision-making is guided by rational
evaluation of perceived positive and negative consequences. According to the TPB
theory, the intention (i.e. plan) to act in a certain way is the strongest predictor of
actual behaviour, and this intention is in turn determined by attitudes towards the
behaviour, subjectively perceived norms that the actor perceives in their social environment and the perceived behavioural control of the actor (Fig. 8.5). Thus, attitudes do not determine behaviour directly but indirectly through behavioural
intention. Behavioural intentions are shaped not only by attitudes but also by social
norms. Within this theory, attitudes can be understood as positive or negative evaluations of the behaviour and its consequences based on personal outcome beliefs and
outcome evaluations. Subjective norms capture the expectations of important others
8 Education for Environmental Citizenship and Responsible Environmental Behaviour