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8.3.1 Knowledge-Based Models
Early thinking regarding environmental education took a linear approach to environmental behaviour with a focus on knowledge and awareness. The assumption
was that providing knowledge (information) will invariably lead to more environmental awareness and a positive attitude towards the environment, which, in turn,
will lead individuals to behave in a more environmentally responsible manner. This
approach, known as the K-A-B (knowledge-attitude-behaviour) model, also
informed much of the campaigning and communication strategies. However, the
widely reported knowledge-attitude-behaviour gap found in much environmental
behaviour research indicates the insufficiency of reliance on solely informationdriven behavioural change.
The debated role of knowledge in promoting pro-environmental behaviour has
increased attention to the knowledge domain. For example, Kaiser and Fuhrer
(2003) identify different forms of knowledge and claim that these must work
together to promote ecological behaviour. According to their typology, declarative
environmental knowledge refers to factual knowledge (i.e. how environmental systems work), and procedural knowledge refers to action-related knowledge (i.e. the
know-how to achieving environmental protection goals such as different courses of
action and how to participate). Effectiveness knowledge is related to the individual’s
cost-benefit ratio (i.e. the ability to rationally assess the worthwhileness of the personal trade-off, such as effort and financial) and relates to the environmental effectiveness of the alternative behaviours. In addition to these forms of knowledge, they
acknowledge the role of social knowledge, i.e. social norms. Some of these knowledge types are understood by other researchers not as knowledge but rather as other
components that make up the individual’s environmental literacy. For example, procedural knowledge is equivalent to the skills element of environmental literacy: the
higher-order cognitive skills for critically assessing alternative courses of action and
the sociopolitical skills required for citizen participation (Alkaher and Goldman
2017; Hollweg et al. 2011). The parallels of social knowledge are addressed in
Sect. 8.3.2.
Knowledge-based models have been furthered by asking questions about the origins and development of knowledge, perceptions and attitudes. Experiential
Processing Theory argues that experientially derived knowledge has more impact
on behaviour than abstract knowledge (Epstein 1994). Leiserowitz’s study into climate change perceptions and behaviour (2006, p. 45) has shown that ‘American risk
perceptions and policy support are strongly influenced by experiential factors,
including affect, imagery, and values’. Experiential Processing Theory argues that
people’s behavioural choices are not only rational, based on analytic cost-benefit
(and risk) or likelihood calculations, but also are driven by affect and emotions
(Leiserowitz 2006). Behaviours might be driven by misconceptions or selective
framing that from the individual’s perspective might be perfectly rational, even
though incompatible with scientific knowledge (e.g. as taught at schools). Thus,
Leiserowitz (2006) argues that knowledge and attitudes that drive behaviours are
significantly influenced by (1) affect, what positive and negative feelings does an
D. Goldman et al.
8.3.1 Knowledge-Based Models
Early thinking regarding environmental education took a linear approach to environmental behaviour with a focus on knowledge and awareness. The assumption
was that providing knowledge (information) will invariably lead to more environmental awareness and a positive attitude towards the environment, which, in turn,
will lead individuals to behave in a more environmentally responsible manner. This
approach, known as the K-A-B (knowledge-attitude-behaviour) model, also
informed much of the campaigning and communication strategies. However, the
widely reported knowledge-attitude-behaviour gap found in much environmental
behaviour research indicates the insufficiency of reliance on solely informationdriven behavioural change.
The debated role of knowledge in promoting pro-environmental behaviour has
increased attention to the knowledge domain. For example, Kaiser and Fuhrer
(2003) identify different forms of knowledge and claim that these must work
together to promote ecological behaviour. According to their typology, declarative
environmental knowledge refers to factual knowledge (i.e. how environmental systems work), and procedural knowledge refers to action-related knowledge (i.e. the
know-how to achieving environmental protection goals such as different courses of
action and how to participate). Effectiveness knowledge is related to the individual’s
cost-benefit ratio (i.e. the ability to rationally assess the worthwhileness of the personal trade-off, such as effort and financial) and relates to the environmental effectiveness of the alternative behaviours. In addition to these forms of knowledge, they
acknowledge the role of social knowledge, i.e. social norms. Some of these knowledge types are understood by other researchers not as knowledge but rather as other
components that make up the individual’s environmental literacy. For example, procedural knowledge is equivalent to the skills element of environmental literacy: the
higher-order cognitive skills for critically assessing alternative courses of action and
the sociopolitical skills required for citizen participation (Alkaher and Goldman
2017; Hollweg et al. 2011). The parallels of social knowledge are addressed in
Sect. 8.3.2.
Knowledge-based models have been furthered by asking questions about the origins and development of knowledge, perceptions and attitudes. Experiential
Processing Theory argues that experientially derived knowledge has more impact
on behaviour than abstract knowledge (Epstein 1994). Leiserowitz’s study into climate change perceptions and behaviour (2006, p. 45) has shown that ‘American risk
perceptions and policy support are strongly influenced by experiential factors,
including affect, imagery, and values’. Experiential Processing Theory argues that
people’s behavioural choices are not only rational, based on analytic cost-benefit
(and risk) or likelihood calculations, but also are driven by affect and emotions
(Leiserowitz 2006). Behaviours might be driven by misconceptions or selective
framing that from the individual’s perspective might be perfectly rational, even
though incompatible with scientific knowledge (e.g. as taught at schools). Thus,
Leiserowitz (2006) argues that knowledge and attitudes that drive behaviours are
significantly influenced by (1) affect, what positive and negative feelings does an
D. Goldman et al.