170
of rice straw off-field activities, as well as conversion factors, were adapted from the
literature and databases from the SIMAPRO software.
The energy and GHGE conversion factors for agronomic inputs, processes, and
products are presented in Table 10.2. The energy value and GHGE conversion factors of related materials were based on Ecoinvent database 3.0, which is one of the
databases included in SIMAPRO software (Ecoinvent 2017), global warming potential over a period of 100 years (GWP-100a) of IPCC (2013) incorporated in
SIMAPRO software (SIMAPRO 2017). The energy conversion for each manual
labor agronomic activity conducted in rice production was adapted from Quilty
et al. (2014). Global warming factors–100 years (GWP-100a) of CH 4 and N 2 O were
30.5 and 265 kg CO 2 -eq., respectively.
Paddy
Rice straw
Hull
Milled
rice
Postharvest
handling and
processing
Incorporation
Complete
removal
Partial removal
Harvesting
Land
preparation
Crop
establishment
Land/soil
Materials/inputs
Process/operation
Products
by-products
Collected for off-field options
(e.g. mushroom, bioenergy)
Burning
Water
Seeds
Fertilizer,
pesticide
Losses
Crop care
Fig. 10.6 Research boundary of LCA in rice production with different rice-straw management
options. (Adapted from Nguyen et al. 2019)
Table 10.2 Energy and GHGE conversion factors of fuel, agronomic inputs, and products
Parameters
Energy
GHGE
Unit
Value
Sources
Unit
Value
Sources
Seeds
MJ kg
−1
30.1
a, b
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
1.12
a, b, j
Grain
MJ kg
−1
15.2
c
Diesel consumption
MJ L
−1
44.8
a, b, d, e
kgCO 2 -eq. MJ
−1
0.08
a, b, j
Machine production
MJ L
−1
15.6
d, e, f
Nitrogen (N)
MJ kg
−1
58.7
a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
5.68
a, b, j
P 2 O 5
MJ kg
−1
17.1
a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
1.09
a, b, j
K 2 O
MJ kg
−1
8.83 a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
0.52
a, b, j
Herbicide
MJ kg
−1
354
a, b, h, i
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
23.3
a, b, j
a: Ecoinvent (2017), b: SIMAPRO (2017), c: Pimentel and Pimentel (2008), d: Bowers (1992), e:
Richard (1992), f: Dalgaard et al. (2001), g: Kool et al. (2012), h: Mudahar and Hignett (1987), i:
Grassini and Cassman (2011), j: IPCC (2013)
N. V. Hung et al.
of rice straw off-field activities, as well as conversion factors, were adapted from the
literature and databases from the SIMAPRO software.
The energy and GHGE conversion factors for agronomic inputs, processes, and
products are presented in Table 10.2. The energy value and GHGE conversion factors of related materials were based on Ecoinvent database 3.0, which is one of the
databases included in SIMAPRO software (Ecoinvent 2017), global warming potential over a period of 100 years (GWP-100a) of IPCC (2013) incorporated in
SIMAPRO software (SIMAPRO 2017). The energy conversion for each manual
labor agronomic activity conducted in rice production was adapted from Quilty
et al. (2014). Global warming factors–100 years (GWP-100a) of CH 4 and N 2 O were
30.5 and 265 kg CO 2 -eq., respectively.
Paddy
Rice straw
Hull
Milled
rice
Postharvest
handling and
processing
Incorporation
Complete
removal
Partial removal
Harvesting
Land
preparation
Crop
establishment
Land/soil
Materials/inputs
Process/operation
Products
by-products
Collected for off-field options
(e.g. mushroom, bioenergy)
Burning
Water
Seeds
Fertilizer,
pesticide
Losses
Crop care
Fig. 10.6 Research boundary of LCA in rice production with different rice-straw management
options. (Adapted from Nguyen et al. 2019)
Table 10.2 Energy and GHGE conversion factors of fuel, agronomic inputs, and products
Parameters
Energy
GHGE
Unit
Value
Sources
Unit
Value
Sources
Seeds
MJ kg
−1
30.1
a, b
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
1.12
a, b, j
Grain
MJ kg
−1
15.2
c
Diesel consumption
MJ L
−1
44.8
a, b, d, e
kgCO 2 -eq. MJ
−1
0.08
a, b, j
Machine production
MJ L
−1
15.6
d, e, f
Nitrogen (N)
MJ kg
−1
58.7
a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
5.68
a, b, j
P 2 O 5
MJ kg
−1
17.1
a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
1.09
a, b, j
K 2 O
MJ kg
−1
8.83 a, b, g
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
0.52
a, b, j
Herbicide
MJ kg
−1
354
a, b, h, i
kgCO 2 -eq kg
−1
23.3
a, b, j
a: Ecoinvent (2017), b: SIMAPRO (2017), c: Pimentel and Pimentel (2008), d: Bowers (1992), e:
Richard (1992), f: Dalgaard et al. (2001), g: Kool et al. (2012), h: Mudahar and Hignett (1987), i:
Grassini and Cassman (2011), j: IPCC (2013)
N. V. Hung et al.