Fabrication of Nanostructured Scaffolds …
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form of non-woven, woven, uniformly aligned, and film. The collector plates such
as metal plate (stainless steel or copper plate) wrapped with aluminum foil results
aligned fibers with drum collectors and woven fibers were collected using counter
electrodes.
11.2 3D Printing
Three dimensional (3D) printing is an additive fabrication technique used to construct
tailor-made or patient specific biomaterial scaffolds. Unlike the conventional method,
3D Printing allows the design and fabrication of scaffolds using clinical images
obtained with computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Recently, 3D Printing emerged as an essential technique in medicine for manufacturing various tissue engineering scaffolds such as skeletal tissues—(bone, skin,
tendon, ligament etc.), dental implants, different tissue models for drug screening,
and disease/disorders [73].
Various biomaterials or hydrogel bioinks are used to fabricate 3D scaffolds,
includes natural polymers majorly collagen, gelatin, hyaluronic acid, alginate,
chitosan, and silk. Synthetic polymer includes Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), Poly(lactideco-glycolide) (PLGA), Poly(caprolactone) PCL, Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF),
Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene glycol
(PEG), polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA), pluronic etc. Additionally, various
composite bioinks are used to fabricate the tissue engineering scaffolds, including
hydroxyapatite, gold (AuNPs), silver (AgNPs), and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles combined with either natural and synthetic polymers. The ideal requirements of biomaterials used for fabricating 3D printed scaffolds include good printability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, biomimetic in nature, adequate or tunable
mechanical properties, reproducibility with limited batch to variation, sterilizability
and good handling characteristics [74].
The 3D printing methods of tissue engineering scaffolds majorly based on the
following four groups. (i) Extrusion method, (ii) Particle fusion method, (iii) Lightinduced, or photo-polymerization method and (iv) Inkjet 3D printing.
i. Extrusion type 3D printing—this also includes fused deposition modeling
(FDM) and direct ink writing (DIW), which are widely used for fabricating
tissue engineering scaffolds. This technique allows the flow of bioink(s) through
the nozzle by either extrusion of filament melted by heat by FDM and using a
pneumatic pump in DIW with predefined computer model 3D object is created
layer by layer manner.
ii. Particle fusion type 3D printing—this method includes selective laser sintering
(SLS) and particle binding (PB) or indirect SLS. This type of fabrication used in
industry for prototype development using materials such as polymers, ceramics,
metals, and composites. SLS 3D printing involves using laser CO 2 to melt the
polymers or metal particles and fuse to create 3D objects. Similarly, PB 3D
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form of non-woven, woven, uniformly aligned, and film. The collector plates such
as metal plate (stainless steel or copper plate) wrapped with aluminum foil results
aligned fibers with drum collectors and woven fibers were collected using counter
electrodes.
11.2 3D Printing
Three dimensional (3D) printing is an additive fabrication technique used to construct
tailor-made or patient specific biomaterial scaffolds. Unlike the conventional method,
3D Printing allows the design and fabrication of scaffolds using clinical images
obtained with computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Recently, 3D Printing emerged as an essential technique in medicine for manufacturing various tissue engineering scaffolds such as skeletal tissues—(bone, skin,
tendon, ligament etc.), dental implants, different tissue models for drug screening,
and disease/disorders [73].
Various biomaterials or hydrogel bioinks are used to fabricate 3D scaffolds,
includes natural polymers majorly collagen, gelatin, hyaluronic acid, alginate,
chitosan, and silk. Synthetic polymer includes Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), Poly(lactideco-glycolide) (PLGA), Poly(caprolactone) PCL, Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF),
Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene glycol
(PEG), polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA), pluronic etc. Additionally, various
composite bioinks are used to fabricate the tissue engineering scaffolds, including
hydroxyapatite, gold (AuNPs), silver (AgNPs), and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles combined with either natural and synthetic polymers. The ideal requirements of biomaterials used for fabricating 3D printed scaffolds include good printability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, biomimetic in nature, adequate or tunable
mechanical properties, reproducibility with limited batch to variation, sterilizability
and good handling characteristics [74].
The 3D printing methods of tissue engineering scaffolds majorly based on the
following four groups. (i) Extrusion method, (ii) Particle fusion method, (iii) Lightinduced, or photo-polymerization method and (iv) Inkjet 3D printing.
i. Extrusion type 3D printing—this also includes fused deposition modeling
(FDM) and direct ink writing (DIW), which are widely used for fabricating
tissue engineering scaffolds. This technique allows the flow of bioink(s) through
the nozzle by either extrusion of filament melted by heat by FDM and using a
pneumatic pump in DIW with predefined computer model 3D object is created
layer by layer manner.
ii. Particle fusion type 3D printing—this method includes selective laser sintering
(SLS) and particle binding (PB) or indirect SLS. This type of fabrication used in
industry for prototype development using materials such as polymers, ceramics,
metals, and composites. SLS 3D printing involves using laser CO 2 to melt the
polymers or metal particles and fuse to create 3D objects. Similarly, PB 3D