Fabrication of Nanostructured Scaffolds …
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healing [71], nerve tissue regeneration, blood vessels, and cardiac tissue regeneration applications. Similarly, composite nanofibrous scaffolds also fabricated by
incorporating ceramic particles such as nHA or TCP for bone tissue regeneration
applications. This category of biomaterials was biomimetic nature with nanofibrous
architecture of ECM. Nanofibrous collagen showed improvement in cell attachment
and enhanced cell-matrix interactions due to its main constituent of ECM structure of varying tissues and studied its suitability as a scaffold for cell attachment,
proliferation, and differentiation [27]. ECM mimicking nanofiber architecture can
be developed using techniques such as electrospinning, phase separation, and selfassembly. The various diameter and orientation of the fibers were produced by these
methods and shown its useful implications in various tissue regeneration applications. Several studies have reported the use of nanofibrous biomaterials for tissue
engineering applications. Hence, the electrospinning technique is an important tool
to fabricate nanostructured fibers utilized to engineer various biomaterials for wider
tissue engineering applications [72].
11 Different Fabrication Techniques for Bone Tissue
Engineering Scaffolds
11.1 Electrospinning
It is a simple, cost-effective, rapid method for the fabrication of different materials
into nanostructured architecture by using electrostatic forces for producing polymeric fibers with a micro and nanometer scale for various applications. Zelency first
presented this technique in 1914, and this process was patented by Formhal’s for the
production of micron fibers. However, at the early time, this method was not used for
fabricating scaffolds for tissue engineering applications and meant for other industrial applications. Recently this technique attracted many researchers for successful
applications for developing various tissue engineering scaffolds with micron (>1 mm)
or nano-sized fibers (<1000 nm) [27].
During electrospinning, a high electric voltage is applied to a homogeneous
polymer/composite solution or melt, which overcomes the surface tension of the
solution and forms a charged jet. This charged polymer solution or melt is ejected
from the syringe; eventually, it’s dried and deposited on the grounded collector plate.
The expelled polymer solutions repel each other while traveling towards collector
plate and then which lead to the formation of fibers with different orientation subsequent solvent evaporation. By optimizing the electrospinning parameters such as
flow rate, applied electric voltage, the distance between collector plate and needle
tip, and collector type (plate or drum), which results in various diameters of the fibers
range from about 0.02 to about 20 mm [72]. The distinctiveness of this method over
other traditional methods is, can be able to electrospun continuously, we can obtain
nanostructured scaffolds with large surface volume ratio and interconnected porous
327
healing [71], nerve tissue regeneration, blood vessels, and cardiac tissue regeneration applications. Similarly, composite nanofibrous scaffolds also fabricated by
incorporating ceramic particles such as nHA or TCP for bone tissue regeneration
applications. This category of biomaterials was biomimetic nature with nanofibrous
architecture of ECM. Nanofibrous collagen showed improvement in cell attachment
and enhanced cell-matrix interactions due to its main constituent of ECM structure of varying tissues and studied its suitability as a scaffold for cell attachment,
proliferation, and differentiation [27]. ECM mimicking nanofiber architecture can
be developed using techniques such as electrospinning, phase separation, and selfassembly. The various diameter and orientation of the fibers were produced by these
methods and shown its useful implications in various tissue regeneration applications. Several studies have reported the use of nanofibrous biomaterials for tissue
engineering applications. Hence, the electrospinning technique is an important tool
to fabricate nanostructured fibers utilized to engineer various biomaterials for wider
tissue engineering applications [72].
11 Different Fabrication Techniques for Bone Tissue
Engineering Scaffolds
11.1 Electrospinning
It is a simple, cost-effective, rapid method for the fabrication of different materials
into nanostructured architecture by using electrostatic forces for producing polymeric fibers with a micro and nanometer scale for various applications. Zelency first
presented this technique in 1914, and this process was patented by Formhal’s for the
production of micron fibers. However, at the early time, this method was not used for
fabricating scaffolds for tissue engineering applications and meant for other industrial applications. Recently this technique attracted many researchers for successful
applications for developing various tissue engineering scaffolds with micron (>1 mm)
or nano-sized fibers (<1000 nm) [27].
During electrospinning, a high electric voltage is applied to a homogeneous
polymer/composite solution or melt, which overcomes the surface tension of the
solution and forms a charged jet. This charged polymer solution or melt is ejected
from the syringe; eventually, it’s dried and deposited on the grounded collector plate.
The expelled polymer solutions repel each other while traveling towards collector
plate and then which lead to the formation of fibers with different orientation subsequent solvent evaporation. By optimizing the electrospinning parameters such as
flow rate, applied electric voltage, the distance between collector plate and needle
tip, and collector type (plate or drum), which results in various diameters of the fibers
range from about 0.02 to about 20 mm [72]. The distinctiveness of this method over
other traditional methods is, can be able to electrospun continuously, we can obtain
nanostructured scaffolds with large surface volume ratio and interconnected porous