326
G. Perumal and M. Doble
with nHA incorporated with PCL polymer and fabricated as three dimensional (3D)
scaffold have shown improved mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) adhesion, proliferation alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and mineralization capacity [65]. Similarly,
nanostructured scaffold fabricated with nHA/collagen/PLLA (Poly-L-lactic acid)
composite reinforced with chitin fibers have showed improved mechanical strength
and bioactivity [66].
9 Structural Characteristics of the Bone
Natural bone is a perfect example of composite material with various structural organizations. The structural arrangement of bone at various levels. Bone is composed
of calcified hard cancellous or compact bone with varying levels of Haversian
canals (osteons) at micron dimensions. Nanostructured linearly arranged collagen
matrix embedded with nano-hydroxyapatite crystals acting as biofunctional tissues
for various cellular functions. Bone tissue mainly composed of compact cortical
bone and porous or trabecular bone (spongy bone). The combined hard shell with
complex integrated cell structure of trabecular bone alignments, which makes them
excellent resistance in bending forces at the same time, provide light-weight architecture [1]. At the nanostructured level, bone is mainly composed of inorganic calcium
phosphate (hydroxyapatite crystals chemical formula of Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ) 70% and
collagen fiber matrix 20–30%embedded some portion of water. The mechanical properties of the individual components as follows Collagen: Elastic Moduli (EM) = 1-2
gigapascal (GPa), ultimate tensile strength (UTS) between 50 and 1000 megapascal
(MPa). Similarly, hydroxyapatite crystals: EM of 130 GPa and UTS of 100 MPa.
These combined properties of both materials as composite provide bone to higher
mechanical strength with ductility with excellent load-bearing capacity [67]. This
composite structure at the macro level provides superior mechanical strength to
the cortical and cancellous bone (compressive strength: 100–230 and 2–12 MPa,
Young’s modulus: 7–30 and 0.5–0.005 GPa respectively [68]. However, micronlevel arrangements having osteons, Haversian canals, and nanoarchitecture (collagen
matrix embedded nHA) levels still need to be addressed [69, 70].
10 Nanofibrous Biomaterials
Nanofibrous materials are one of the significant categories of widely used biomaterials for tissue engineering applications. Numerous studies have been reported for
nanostructured scaffolds made into electrospun fibers using electrospinning technique with utilization of various naturally derived, synthetic biodegradable polymers
or combination of both by encapsulating cells, growth factors, proteins, and ceramics,
etc., used for various tissue regeneration applications. Especially nanofibrous scaffolds developed with biodegradable polymers are primarily employed for wound
G. Perumal and M. Doble
with nHA incorporated with PCL polymer and fabricated as three dimensional (3D)
scaffold have shown improved mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) adhesion, proliferation alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and mineralization capacity [65]. Similarly,
nanostructured scaffold fabricated with nHA/collagen/PLLA (Poly-L-lactic acid)
composite reinforced with chitin fibers have showed improved mechanical strength
and bioactivity [66].
9 Structural Characteristics of the Bone
Natural bone is a perfect example of composite material with various structural organizations. The structural arrangement of bone at various levels. Bone is composed
of calcified hard cancellous or compact bone with varying levels of Haversian
canals (osteons) at micron dimensions. Nanostructured linearly arranged collagen
matrix embedded with nano-hydroxyapatite crystals acting as biofunctional tissues
for various cellular functions. Bone tissue mainly composed of compact cortical
bone and porous or trabecular bone (spongy bone). The combined hard shell with
complex integrated cell structure of trabecular bone alignments, which makes them
excellent resistance in bending forces at the same time, provide light-weight architecture [1]. At the nanostructured level, bone is mainly composed of inorganic calcium
phosphate (hydroxyapatite crystals chemical formula of Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ) 70% and
collagen fiber matrix 20–30%embedded some portion of water. The mechanical properties of the individual components as follows Collagen: Elastic Moduli (EM) = 1-2
gigapascal (GPa), ultimate tensile strength (UTS) between 50 and 1000 megapascal
(MPa). Similarly, hydroxyapatite crystals: EM of 130 GPa and UTS of 100 MPa.
These combined properties of both materials as composite provide bone to higher
mechanical strength with ductility with excellent load-bearing capacity [67]. This
composite structure at the macro level provides superior mechanical strength to
the cortical and cancellous bone (compressive strength: 100–230 and 2–12 MPa,
Young’s modulus: 7–30 and 0.5–0.005 GPa respectively [68]. However, micronlevel arrangements having osteons, Haversian canals, and nanoarchitecture (collagen
matrix embedded nHA) levels still need to be addressed [69, 70].
10 Nanofibrous Biomaterials
Nanofibrous materials are one of the significant categories of widely used biomaterials for tissue engineering applications. Numerous studies have been reported for
nanostructured scaffolds made into electrospun fibers using electrospinning technique with utilization of various naturally derived, synthetic biodegradable polymers
or combination of both by encapsulating cells, growth factors, proteins, and ceramics,
etc., used for various tissue regeneration applications. Especially nanofibrous scaffolds developed with biodegradable polymers are primarily employed for wound