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G. Perumal and M. Doble
is in the nanoscale [2]. In few cases reported the toxicity of the nanostructured interactions and posed serious problems, and this should be addressed for the effective use
of such materials. Recently, nanotechnology-based scaffold fabrication is attracted
to tissue engineering applications due to its ultimate biomimetic nature similar to
ECM structure, which leads to better functionalities of the nanostructured scaffolds.
Examples such as electrospun nanofibers, nanotubes, nanoparticles, and hydrogel
preparations have shown successfully in tissue engineering applications both in vitro
and in vivo for enhanced repair of damaged tissue over conventional scaffolds having
micron-sized materials. One of the most significant advantages of nanostructured
materials as previously mentioned‚ due to the nano dimension of native tissue structures, can efficiently interact with cells to stimulate nanostructured ECM, which is
excellent biomimetic nature, which leads to enhanced guided tissue regeneration.
To mimic the natural ECM nanostructure, the biomaterial scaffolds developed into
various forms (examples mentioned above) for useful tissue regeneration applications [3]. In addition to that, natural tissues or organs resemble nanometer dimensions
that allow nanostructured scaffolds with many improved cellular functions and tissue
regeneration capacity [4].
Recently, numerous studies have reported that the effectiveness of the nanostructured scaffolds by incorporating various cells such as stem cells, chondrocytes, and
osteoblasts for tissue regeneration applications [5]. The current attention is towards
nanostructured materials due to their improved mechanical properties, porosity in
nanoscale, biocompatibility, and bioactivity by better cell adhesion and proliferation, resulting in remarkable integration with the adjacent tissues [6, 7]. Nanomaterials including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanocomposites, nanoclusters, nanocrystals, nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods, and nanofilms etc., currently, many top-down
and bottom-up approaches existing to fabricate nanomaterials or nanostructured
materials with well-organized or random nano topographies are namely electrospinning, phase separation, self-assembly processes, thin film deposition, chemical
vapor deposition, chemical etching, nano-imprinting, photolithography, and electron
beam or nanosphere lithographies [8–12].
2 Problems Associated with Conventional Biomaterials
Conventional or micron structured materials lack desired cytocompatibility, mechanical, optical, catalytic, and magnetic properties [13]. The autografts and allografts are
the most widely used tissue substitutes for damaged tissue repair and which have limitations such as limited tissue availability, donor site morbidity, and high cost, which
cannot meet the improved tissue regeneration [14, 15]. However, nanostructured
material possesses higher surface area, allowing better adhesion of cells, proteins,
or active ingredients than the former. Unlike conventional materials, nanomaterials
biomimetic nature (shown in Fig. 1) similar to native bone tissue and promoting
enhanced protein adsorption than the micron-sized materials, which has potential in
stimulating more new bone regeneration [13].
G. Perumal and M. Doble
is in the nanoscale [2]. In few cases reported the toxicity of the nanostructured interactions and posed serious problems, and this should be addressed for the effective use
of such materials. Recently, nanotechnology-based scaffold fabrication is attracted
to tissue engineering applications due to its ultimate biomimetic nature similar to
ECM structure, which leads to better functionalities of the nanostructured scaffolds.
Examples such as electrospun nanofibers, nanotubes, nanoparticles, and hydrogel
preparations have shown successfully in tissue engineering applications both in vitro
and in vivo for enhanced repair of damaged tissue over conventional scaffolds having
micron-sized materials. One of the most significant advantages of nanostructured
materials as previously mentioned‚ due to the nano dimension of native tissue structures, can efficiently interact with cells to stimulate nanostructured ECM, which is
excellent biomimetic nature, which leads to enhanced guided tissue regeneration.
To mimic the natural ECM nanostructure, the biomaterial scaffolds developed into
various forms (examples mentioned above) for useful tissue regeneration applications [3]. In addition to that, natural tissues or organs resemble nanometer dimensions
that allow nanostructured scaffolds with many improved cellular functions and tissue
regeneration capacity [4].
Recently, numerous studies have reported that the effectiveness of the nanostructured scaffolds by incorporating various cells such as stem cells, chondrocytes, and
osteoblasts for tissue regeneration applications [5]. The current attention is towards
nanostructured materials due to their improved mechanical properties, porosity in
nanoscale, biocompatibility, and bioactivity by better cell adhesion and proliferation, resulting in remarkable integration with the adjacent tissues [6, 7]. Nanomaterials including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanocomposites, nanoclusters, nanocrystals, nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods, and nanofilms etc., currently, many top-down
and bottom-up approaches existing to fabricate nanomaterials or nanostructured
materials with well-organized or random nano topographies are namely electrospinning, phase separation, self-assembly processes, thin film deposition, chemical
vapor deposition, chemical etching, nano-imprinting, photolithography, and electron
beam or nanosphere lithographies [8–12].
2 Problems Associated with Conventional Biomaterials
Conventional or micron structured materials lack desired cytocompatibility, mechanical, optical, catalytic, and magnetic properties [13]. The autografts and allografts are
the most widely used tissue substitutes for damaged tissue repair and which have limitations such as limited tissue availability, donor site morbidity, and high cost, which
cannot meet the improved tissue regeneration [14, 15]. However, nanostructured
material possesses higher surface area, allowing better adhesion of cells, proteins,
or active ingredients than the former. Unlike conventional materials, nanomaterials
biomimetic nature (shown in Fig. 1) similar to native bone tissue and promoting
enhanced protein adsorption than the micron-sized materials, which has potential in
stimulating more new bone regeneration [13].