237
itate CP. Currently, the lack of specifi c policies to facilitate and sustain CP, funding
and capacity for implementation, lax enforcement of regulations and insuffi cient
external social pressure demanding change are some of the signifi cant barriers to CP
implementation and expansion (Muduli et al. 2013 ).
2.3 Eco-Industrial Development
Applying the concept of CP at the scale of an industrial area gives rise to ecoindustrial networks that exchange materials and realize collective sustainable benefi ts (see Chap. 5 ). In the broadest sense, industrial areas that are either designed or
remodelled for this purpose are called Eco-Industrial Parks – EIPs. The fi rst EIP in
the developing world was set up in 2000 by the Chinese Research Academy on
Environmental Science, an affi liated institution of the China State Environmental
Protection Administration (Chiu and Yong 2004 ). Currently as many as 60 parks
have been approved under the national pilot EIP programme in China (Zhang et al.
2010 ). In 2009, China framed and enforced the Circular Economy Promotion Law
that supports the development of EIPs, via specifi c regulations and schemes to raise
resource recycling rates in production, circulation and consumption cycles (WB
2009 ). In India and in most other developing countries, national or regional policies
that facilitate EIPs are lacking (Ashton and Shenoy 2015 ). In India, over the past
few years, the German development agency, GIZ, has been involved in the establishment of EIPs in a few states in India (GIZ n.d. ).
Examination of industrial symbiosis in India has revealed high potential for
spontaneously evolved waste exchange networks (Bain et al. 2010 ). This observation reveals potential for a bottom-up approach to develop EIPs such as that carried
out by the UK National Industrial Symbiosis Program (NISP) (Boons et al. 2011 ),
further facilitated by policies and fi nancial assistance that encourage industries to
implement recycling strategies (especially for materials that do not have established
markets). In addition, there is a signifi cant need to (1) develop new methods to
quantify material fl ows in the large informal sector, and (2) examine power relationships and negotiating authority between partners involved in residue exchanges,
especially between large well-established companies and informal players such as
farmers’ co-operatives, individual farmers and waste recyclers. Such fi ndings were
revealed when uncovering the residue exchanges involving ash granted by largescale companies to individual small land-holding farmers in south India (Bain et al.
2010 ).
In other developing countries, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Egypt, Namibia,
South Africa, Colombia and Peru (UNIDO in prep. ; Chertow et al. 2008 ), ecoindustrial development is at varying stages of development. Most studies that report
and examine EIPs in developing countries have focused on the physical fl ows of
matter and energy. However, there is a need for a deeper understanding of crucial
aspects of EIPs such as (1) systems for inter-organizational networking opportunities, (2) stakeholder participation and (3) measurement of life cycle environmental
11 Industrial Ecology in Developing Countries
itate CP. Currently, the lack of specifi c policies to facilitate and sustain CP, funding
and capacity for implementation, lax enforcement of regulations and insuffi cient
external social pressure demanding change are some of the signifi cant barriers to CP
implementation and expansion (Muduli et al. 2013 ).
2.3 Eco-Industrial Development
Applying the concept of CP at the scale of an industrial area gives rise to ecoindustrial networks that exchange materials and realize collective sustainable benefi ts (see Chap. 5 ). In the broadest sense, industrial areas that are either designed or
remodelled for this purpose are called Eco-Industrial Parks – EIPs. The fi rst EIP in
the developing world was set up in 2000 by the Chinese Research Academy on
Environmental Science, an affi liated institution of the China State Environmental
Protection Administration (Chiu and Yong 2004 ). Currently as many as 60 parks
have been approved under the national pilot EIP programme in China (Zhang et al.
2010 ). In 2009, China framed and enforced the Circular Economy Promotion Law
that supports the development of EIPs, via specifi c regulations and schemes to raise
resource recycling rates in production, circulation and consumption cycles (WB
2009 ). In India and in most other developing countries, national or regional policies
that facilitate EIPs are lacking (Ashton and Shenoy 2015 ). In India, over the past
few years, the German development agency, GIZ, has been involved in the establishment of EIPs in a few states in India (GIZ n.d. ).
Examination of industrial symbiosis in India has revealed high potential for
spontaneously evolved waste exchange networks (Bain et al. 2010 ). This observation reveals potential for a bottom-up approach to develop EIPs such as that carried
out by the UK National Industrial Symbiosis Program (NISP) (Boons et al. 2011 ),
further facilitated by policies and fi nancial assistance that encourage industries to
implement recycling strategies (especially for materials that do not have established
markets). In addition, there is a signifi cant need to (1) develop new methods to
quantify material fl ows in the large informal sector, and (2) examine power relationships and negotiating authority between partners involved in residue exchanges,
especially between large well-established companies and informal players such as
farmers’ co-operatives, individual farmers and waste recyclers. Such fi ndings were
revealed when uncovering the residue exchanges involving ash granted by largescale companies to individual small land-holding farmers in south India (Bain et al.
2010 ).
In other developing countries, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Egypt, Namibia,
South Africa, Colombia and Peru (UNIDO in prep. ; Chertow et al. 2008 ), ecoindustrial development is at varying stages of development. Most studies that report
and examine EIPs in developing countries have focused on the physical fl ows of
matter and energy. However, there is a need for a deeper understanding of crucial
aspects of EIPs such as (1) systems for inter-organizational networking opportunities, (2) stakeholder participation and (3) measurement of life cycle environmental
11 Industrial Ecology in Developing Countries