140
Furthermore, as a key driver of deforestation (Sect. 10.2.2.4 and 10.2.3), oil palm
agriculture can affect the provision of other ecosystem services from grassland and
woodland ecosystems such as timber, rubber, wild food, and non-timber forest
products (NTFP) among others (Dislich et al. 2017). Studies have identified that
these trade-offs can be particularly significant in communities that highly depend on
forest for their livelihoods (Sheil et al. 2009). However it is interesting to note that
various parts of oil palm trees and fruits have been used for the development of different types of medicine (Dislich et al. 2017).
10.2.2.3 Freshwater Services (Provisioning and Regulating Services)
Palm oil biodiesel production can affect freshwater ecosystem services through
multiple mechanisms (De Fraiture and Berndes 2009; Dislich et al. 2017). When it
comes to water consumption, water footprint analysis has shown that palm oil biodiesel from Malaysia and Indonesia has relatively lower water footprint (expressed
in m
3
of water consumed per GJ of energy produced) than most other first- generation
biofuel practices (Gerbens-Leenes et al. 2009a, 2009b; Mellko 2008; Van Lienden
et al. 2010). However, the actual effects of oil palm agriculture on freshwater ecosystem services can be much more complicated as the conversion of forested land
to oil palm monocultures can affect a series of functions related to hydrological
cycles (Dislich et al. 2017). A recent meta-analysis of the literature suggests mostly
negative effects due to decreases in a series of functions such as water storage, infiltration rate, regularity of supply, regulation of peak flows, water quality, and flood
and drought prevention (Dislich et al. 2017).
When it comes to water quality, oil palm plantations are very fertilizer intensive
in both countries (FAO 2004; FIAM 2009; FAO 2005). Fertilizer and pesticide residues can enter water bodies and potentially disrupt ecosystem functioning and negatively affect human health (refer to Sect. 10.2.4). The palm oil industry has also
been identified as a major source of water pollution in Malaysia (Muyibi et al.
2008). Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is characterized by high levels of BOD
5
with
approximately 2.5–3 tons of POME being produced for each ton of palm oil (Wu
et al. 2010). However it has been suggested that POME can be used for oil palm but
the environmental co-benefits of such practices are debatable.
10.2.2.4 Climate Regulation (Regulating Service)
Biofuels have been identified as potential climate mitigation options (e.g., IPCC
2007). Even though biofuel production/use can emit significant amounts of GHGs
during their whole life cycle (Hess et al. 2009), several LCAs have shown that some
biofuel practices can emit less GHG than fossil fuels during their whole life cycle.
Palm oil biodiesel can provide significant carbon savings (up to 80%) when
5 POME has BOD of 21,500–24,500 mg/L which is several times higher than that of sewage water.
R. Moreno-Peñaranda et al.
Furthermore, as a key driver of deforestation (Sect. 10.2.2.4 and 10.2.3), oil palm
agriculture can affect the provision of other ecosystem services from grassland and
woodland ecosystems such as timber, rubber, wild food, and non-timber forest
products (NTFP) among others (Dislich et al. 2017). Studies have identified that
these trade-offs can be particularly significant in communities that highly depend on
forest for their livelihoods (Sheil et al. 2009). However it is interesting to note that
various parts of oil palm trees and fruits have been used for the development of different types of medicine (Dislich et al. 2017).
10.2.2.3 Freshwater Services (Provisioning and Regulating Services)
Palm oil biodiesel production can affect freshwater ecosystem services through
multiple mechanisms (De Fraiture and Berndes 2009; Dislich et al. 2017). When it
comes to water consumption, water footprint analysis has shown that palm oil biodiesel from Malaysia and Indonesia has relatively lower water footprint (expressed
in m
3
of water consumed per GJ of energy produced) than most other first- generation
biofuel practices (Gerbens-Leenes et al. 2009a, 2009b; Mellko 2008; Van Lienden
et al. 2010). However, the actual effects of oil palm agriculture on freshwater ecosystem services can be much more complicated as the conversion of forested land
to oil palm monocultures can affect a series of functions related to hydrological
cycles (Dislich et al. 2017). A recent meta-analysis of the literature suggests mostly
negative effects due to decreases in a series of functions such as water storage, infiltration rate, regularity of supply, regulation of peak flows, water quality, and flood
and drought prevention (Dislich et al. 2017).
When it comes to water quality, oil palm plantations are very fertilizer intensive
in both countries (FAO 2004; FIAM 2009; FAO 2005). Fertilizer and pesticide residues can enter water bodies and potentially disrupt ecosystem functioning and negatively affect human health (refer to Sect. 10.2.4). The palm oil industry has also
been identified as a major source of water pollution in Malaysia (Muyibi et al.
2008). Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is characterized by high levels of BOD
5
with
approximately 2.5–3 tons of POME being produced for each ton of palm oil (Wu
et al. 2010). However it has been suggested that POME can be used for oil palm but
the environmental co-benefits of such practices are debatable.
10.2.2.4 Climate Regulation (Regulating Service)
Biofuels have been identified as potential climate mitigation options (e.g., IPCC
2007). Even though biofuel production/use can emit significant amounts of GHGs
during their whole life cycle (Hess et al. 2009), several LCAs have shown that some
biofuel practices can emit less GHG than fossil fuels during their whole life cycle.
Palm oil biodiesel can provide significant carbon savings (up to 80%) when
5 POME has BOD of 21,500–24,500 mg/L which is several times higher than that of sewage water.
R. Moreno-Peñaranda et al.