141
compared to conventional fossil fuels (Menichetti and Otto 2009). Smeets et al.
(2008) calculate robust GHG reduction potential of up to 75%. RFA (2008) reports
a 46% GHG savings for palm oil biodiesel in Malaysia.
However most new oil palm plantations have been established on previously
forested areas and often on former peatland forests (Carlson et al. 2012). Such
LUCC effects can result in high carbon debts (Carlson et al. 2012; Koh et al. 2011;
Moore et al. 2013; Ramdani and Hino 2013; van Straaten et al. 2015; Dislich et al.
2017) that might take several decades or centuries to repay. Danielsen et al. (2009)
calculated that depending on the forest clearing method used, it would take
75–93 years for an oil palm plantation to compensate the carbon lost during the
conversion of the initial forest, 600 years if that happens on peatland, and approximately 10 years if that happens on grassland. Fargione et al. (2008) report that the
time to repay the biodiesel carbon debt would be 86 years if palm oil is established
on forested land and 423 years if that forest is located on peatland. RFA (2008)
calculates carbon payback time of 0–11 years for biodiesel from oil palm grown on
grassland and 18–38 years on forested land.
10.2.2.5 Air Quality Regulation (Regulating Service)
Palm trees, like all other plants, emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and isoprene in particular. Hewitt et al. (2009) and Fowler et al. (2011) have shown that
indeed VOC and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, which are tropospheric ozone
precursors (O 3 ), are greater from oil palm plantations than from primary rainforest.
Sometimes the land that is used for oil palm production is cleared through the use
of fire (e.g., Van der Werf et al. 2008). Biomass burning has been identified as major
sources of atmospheric pollution and GHG emissions, affecting significantly atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles among other impacts (Crutzen and
Andreae 1990). Communities adjacent to oil palm plantations often report declining
air quality due to activities within the plantations (Obidzinski et al. 2012).
10.2.2.6 Erosion Control (Regulating Service)
Mature oil palm plantations in Malaysia have a soil erosion rate of approximately
7.7–14 tons/ha/year with erosion rates being even larger during the early years of
the plantation when a complete palm canopy has not yet been established (Stromberg
et al. 2010; Lee et al. 2012). In order of decreasing soil erosion hazard,
6
de Vries
et al. (2010) ranked the most commonly used feedstocks as follows: cassava, soybean, sugarcane, sorghum, corn, sugar beet, winter wheat, oil palm, and winter
rapeseed.
6 This is an indicative ranking that can depend on the characteristics of the soil itself and the cultivation method adopted among other factors.
10 Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Ecosystem Services and Human Well-Being Impacts…
compared to conventional fossil fuels (Menichetti and Otto 2009). Smeets et al.
(2008) calculate robust GHG reduction potential of up to 75%. RFA (2008) reports
a 46% GHG savings for palm oil biodiesel in Malaysia.
However most new oil palm plantations have been established on previously
forested areas and often on former peatland forests (Carlson et al. 2012). Such
LUCC effects can result in high carbon debts (Carlson et al. 2012; Koh et al. 2011;
Moore et al. 2013; Ramdani and Hino 2013; van Straaten et al. 2015; Dislich et al.
2017) that might take several decades or centuries to repay. Danielsen et al. (2009)
calculated that depending on the forest clearing method used, it would take
75–93 years for an oil palm plantation to compensate the carbon lost during the
conversion of the initial forest, 600 years if that happens on peatland, and approximately 10 years if that happens on grassland. Fargione et al. (2008) report that the
time to repay the biodiesel carbon debt would be 86 years if palm oil is established
on forested land and 423 years if that forest is located on peatland. RFA (2008)
calculates carbon payback time of 0–11 years for biodiesel from oil palm grown on
grassland and 18–38 years on forested land.
10.2.2.5 Air Quality Regulation (Regulating Service)
Palm trees, like all other plants, emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and isoprene in particular. Hewitt et al. (2009) and Fowler et al. (2011) have shown that
indeed VOC and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, which are tropospheric ozone
precursors (O 3 ), are greater from oil palm plantations than from primary rainforest.
Sometimes the land that is used for oil palm production is cleared through the use
of fire (e.g., Van der Werf et al. 2008). Biomass burning has been identified as major
sources of atmospheric pollution and GHG emissions, affecting significantly atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles among other impacts (Crutzen and
Andreae 1990). Communities adjacent to oil palm plantations often report declining
air quality due to activities within the plantations (Obidzinski et al. 2012).
10.2.2.6 Erosion Control (Regulating Service)
Mature oil palm plantations in Malaysia have a soil erosion rate of approximately
7.7–14 tons/ha/year with erosion rates being even larger during the early years of
the plantation when a complete palm canopy has not yet been established (Stromberg
et al. 2010; Lee et al. 2012). In order of decreasing soil erosion hazard,
6
de Vries
et al. (2010) ranked the most commonly used feedstocks as follows: cassava, soybean, sugarcane, sorghum, corn, sugar beet, winter wheat, oil palm, and winter
rapeseed.
6 This is an indicative ranking that can depend on the characteristics of the soil itself and the cultivation method adopted among other factors.
10 Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Ecosystem Services and Human Well-Being Impacts…