410
K. Dhangar and M. Kumar
water without further degradation (Sinclair and Kannan 2006). Due to the presence
of PFOS in the river water, PFOS was also detected in various aquatic organisms
such as fishes, river minks, river otters and birds (Murakami et al. 2011; Yeung et al.
2009; Houde et al. 2006; Giesy and Kannan 2001).
18.4 Potential Hazards to Human Health and Biota
From various studies of PFOS, it is clear that PFOS is present almost everywhere
which includes water, air, soil and sediments. It is not only limited to abiotic things but
also found in significant concentrations in human blood samples, seminal plasma,
breast milk, aquatic organisms (fishes, water birds, marine mammals, etc.), some
wildlife species too (polar bears, pigs, cynomolgus monkeys, rabbits, etc.) (Bao
et al. 2014; Murakami et al. 2011; Yeung et al. 2009; Houde et al. 2006; Kannan
et al. 2004; Giesy and Kannan 2001). PFOS’s inexplicable concentration prevents
it from degradation in ecological system. PFOS has various modes of exposure to
humans such as food ingestion (packed food, contaminated edible crops, contaminated fishes, etc.), drinking water and inhalation of indoor or outdoor dust (Weiss
et al. 2012; Hoffman et al. 2011; Post et al. 2009; Emmett et al. 2006) (Fig. 18.2). Its
bioaccumulation can cause potential risk to human health and other animals. Mostly
animal studies are conducted to check the toxicity of PFOS and relate those studies to humans (Calafat et al. 2006). Such studies have been conducted on various
species like monkeys, rats, rabbits, livestock, etc., for both short and subchronic
durations (Seacat et al. 2002; Case et al. 2001). Such studies showed adverse effects
on these animals in terms of immune effects, developmental neurotoxicity, developmental effects (survival, implications in body weight and elevated serum glucose
levels and insulin resistance in adults), liver toxicity (hepatotoxicity), reproduction
(mate behaviors) and cancer (liver and thyroid) (Rahman et al. 2014; Butenhoff et al.
2012; Corsini et al. 2012; Brieger et al. 2011).
Many studies detected PFOS concentrations in human blood, serum, plasma and
tissues (Maestri et al. 2006). From available human epidemiology data during various
studies, the health risks were associated with suppressed immune response, attention
deficit in children, thyroid diseases, liver and bladder damage, high cholesterol level,
low birth weights, reproductive parameters (low semen quality in men and early
menopause in women), etc. (Vieira et al. 2013; Barry et al. 2013; Grandjean et al.
2012; Knox et al. 2011; Melzer et al. 2010; Hoffman et al. 2010; Joensen et al. 2009;
Fei et al. 2007).
Considering the risk to human health, in May 2009, PFOS has been listed under
the United Nations Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and is subjected to strict restrictions as an Annex B substance (UNEP 2010). European Chemicals Agency had also listed PFOS as a “Substance of Very High Concern”
and is subject to restriction under Annex XVII, entry 53, of Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), a European Union regulation
K. Dhangar and M. Kumar
water without further degradation (Sinclair and Kannan 2006). Due to the presence
of PFOS in the river water, PFOS was also detected in various aquatic organisms
such as fishes, river minks, river otters and birds (Murakami et al. 2011; Yeung et al.
2009; Houde et al. 2006; Giesy and Kannan 2001).
18.4 Potential Hazards to Human Health and Biota
From various studies of PFOS, it is clear that PFOS is present almost everywhere
which includes water, air, soil and sediments. It is not only limited to abiotic things but
also found in significant concentrations in human blood samples, seminal plasma,
breast milk, aquatic organisms (fishes, water birds, marine mammals, etc.), some
wildlife species too (polar bears, pigs, cynomolgus monkeys, rabbits, etc.) (Bao
et al. 2014; Murakami et al. 2011; Yeung et al. 2009; Houde et al. 2006; Kannan
et al. 2004; Giesy and Kannan 2001). PFOS’s inexplicable concentration prevents
it from degradation in ecological system. PFOS has various modes of exposure to
humans such as food ingestion (packed food, contaminated edible crops, contaminated fishes, etc.), drinking water and inhalation of indoor or outdoor dust (Weiss
et al. 2012; Hoffman et al. 2011; Post et al. 2009; Emmett et al. 2006) (Fig. 18.2). Its
bioaccumulation can cause potential risk to human health and other animals. Mostly
animal studies are conducted to check the toxicity of PFOS and relate those studies to humans (Calafat et al. 2006). Such studies have been conducted on various
species like monkeys, rats, rabbits, livestock, etc., for both short and subchronic
durations (Seacat et al. 2002; Case et al. 2001). Such studies showed adverse effects
on these animals in terms of immune effects, developmental neurotoxicity, developmental effects (survival, implications in body weight and elevated serum glucose
levels and insulin resistance in adults), liver toxicity (hepatotoxicity), reproduction
(mate behaviors) and cancer (liver and thyroid) (Rahman et al. 2014; Butenhoff et al.
2012; Corsini et al. 2012; Brieger et al. 2011).
Many studies detected PFOS concentrations in human blood, serum, plasma and
tissues (Maestri et al. 2006). From available human epidemiology data during various
studies, the health risks were associated with suppressed immune response, attention
deficit in children, thyroid diseases, liver and bladder damage, high cholesterol level,
low birth weights, reproductive parameters (low semen quality in men and early
menopause in women), etc. (Vieira et al. 2013; Barry et al. 2013; Grandjean et al.
2012; Knox et al. 2011; Melzer et al. 2010; Hoffman et al. 2010; Joensen et al. 2009;
Fei et al. 2007).
Considering the risk to human health, in May 2009, PFOS has been listed under
the United Nations Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
and is subjected to strict restrictions as an Annex B substance (UNEP 2010). European Chemicals Agency had also listed PFOS as a “Substance of Very High Concern”
and is subject to restriction under Annex XVII, entry 53, of Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), a European Union regulation