12
K. Kuroda and J. Kobayashi
concentration in the groundwater was the highest for caffeine (maximum concentration: 503.76 ng/L; detection frequency: 100%), followed by DEET (114.92 ng/L;
80%), sulfamethoxypyridazine (107.14 ng/L, 40%), ketoprofen (85.10 ng/L; 60%),
and roxithromycin (63.72 ng/L; 80%). These groundwater PPCP levels were higher
than in other Chinese groundwater, presumably because of a lack of effective
treatment of waste from human and/or breeding animals (Jiang et al. 2019).
At the local scale, the groundwater near two landfill sites in Guangzhou was
investigated (Peng et al. 2014), and 22 PPCPs were detected, with salicylic acid
(detection frequency: 98%; maximum concentration: 2014.7 ng/L), methylparaben
(97.2%; 83.2 ng/L), and triclocarban (79.6%; 36.2 ng/L) being the most prevalent.
The source of PPCPs in the groundwater was inferred to be septic tank effluents
rather than landfill leachates, as the PPCP concentrations in the groundwater did not
correlate with the distance from the closest landfill sites.
The occurrence of 19 and 14 antibiotics in groundwater was investigated by Tong
et al. (2014) and Yao et al. (2017), respectively, both in Shahu County, central China,
within the Yangtze River system. Both studies found at least one antibiotic in all
the groundwater samples. In Tong et al. (2014), clarithromycin, azithromycin, and
roxithromycin showed 100% detection frequency, while erythromycin dehydrate
(377.8 ng/L), tetracycline (115.2 ng/L), and chlortetracycline (86.6 ng/L) showed
the highest concentrations. Yao et al. (2017) found that the antibiotic levels in the
groundwater were highest in spring (131 ng/L, as an average of the total antibiotics in the groundwater samples), as compared to summer (20.3 ng/L) and winter
(33.7 ng/L) (there was no fall survey). Fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines were the
dominant antibiotics, in contrast to the area’s surface waters, where macrolides, especially erythromycin, were dominant. The authors conjectured that this difference may
have been due to the more hydrophilic nature of fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines.
Agricultural and municipal wastewaters were likely the primary sources of the antibiotics in the groundwater, with fish ponds being a further source of some antibiotics,
such as tetracyclines.
1.3.2 India
India is among the top five global pharmaceutical producers (Balakrishna et al. 2017).
Major pharmaceutical industries are located in Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad,
Dehradun, and Mumbai (Sackaria and Elango 2019). In particular, Hyderabad City
accounts for nearly 80% of India’s domestic pharmaceutical production (Mathew and
Unnikrishnan 2012). A broad range of PPCPs have been investigated in the water
environment of India (Balakrishna et al. 2017; Philip et al. 2018). In the case of
groundwater, Sackaria and Elango (2019) reviewed the occurrence of diverse CECs,
including PPCPs, in the country. Therefore, in this chapter, four studies, three of
which were also reviewed in Sackaria and Elango (2019), are introduced in more
detail.
K. Kuroda and J. Kobayashi
concentration in the groundwater was the highest for caffeine (maximum concentration: 503.76 ng/L; detection frequency: 100%), followed by DEET (114.92 ng/L;
80%), sulfamethoxypyridazine (107.14 ng/L, 40%), ketoprofen (85.10 ng/L; 60%),
and roxithromycin (63.72 ng/L; 80%). These groundwater PPCP levels were higher
than in other Chinese groundwater, presumably because of a lack of effective
treatment of waste from human and/or breeding animals (Jiang et al. 2019).
At the local scale, the groundwater near two landfill sites in Guangzhou was
investigated (Peng et al. 2014), and 22 PPCPs were detected, with salicylic acid
(detection frequency: 98%; maximum concentration: 2014.7 ng/L), methylparaben
(97.2%; 83.2 ng/L), and triclocarban (79.6%; 36.2 ng/L) being the most prevalent.
The source of PPCPs in the groundwater was inferred to be septic tank effluents
rather than landfill leachates, as the PPCP concentrations in the groundwater did not
correlate with the distance from the closest landfill sites.
The occurrence of 19 and 14 antibiotics in groundwater was investigated by Tong
et al. (2014) and Yao et al. (2017), respectively, both in Shahu County, central China,
within the Yangtze River system. Both studies found at least one antibiotic in all
the groundwater samples. In Tong et al. (2014), clarithromycin, azithromycin, and
roxithromycin showed 100% detection frequency, while erythromycin dehydrate
(377.8 ng/L), tetracycline (115.2 ng/L), and chlortetracycline (86.6 ng/L) showed
the highest concentrations. Yao et al. (2017) found that the antibiotic levels in the
groundwater were highest in spring (131 ng/L, as an average of the total antibiotics in the groundwater samples), as compared to summer (20.3 ng/L) and winter
(33.7 ng/L) (there was no fall survey). Fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines were the
dominant antibiotics, in contrast to the area’s surface waters, where macrolides, especially erythromycin, were dominant. The authors conjectured that this difference may
have been due to the more hydrophilic nature of fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines.
Agricultural and municipal wastewaters were likely the primary sources of the antibiotics in the groundwater, with fish ponds being a further source of some antibiotics,
such as tetracyclines.
1.3.2 India
India is among the top five global pharmaceutical producers (Balakrishna et al. 2017).
Major pharmaceutical industries are located in Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ahmedabad,
Dehradun, and Mumbai (Sackaria and Elango 2019). In particular, Hyderabad City
accounts for nearly 80% of India’s domestic pharmaceutical production (Mathew and
Unnikrishnan 2012). A broad range of PPCPs have been investigated in the water
environment of India (Balakrishna et al. 2017; Philip et al. 2018). In the case of
groundwater, Sackaria and Elango (2019) reviewed the occurrence of diverse CECs,
including PPCPs, in the country. Therefore, in this chapter, four studies, three of
which were also reviewed in Sackaria and Elango (2019), are introduced in more
detail.