1 Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care Products, and Artificial …
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Early studies on PPCPs in Indian groundwater focused on antibiotics (Fick et al.
2009; Rutgersson et al. 2014). Fick et al. (2009) reported very high levels of antibiotics in the groundwater and river water in the Patancheru region, along the Isakavagu
stream and Nakkavagu River, in 2008. A local WWTP, Patancheru Enviro Tech Limited (PETL), received wastewater from pharmaceutical manufacturers (Larsson et al.
2007) and discharged effluents with extremely high levels of pharmaceuticals (mg/L
level) into the Isakavagu stream. As a result, cetirizine and ciprofloxacin showed
extremely high concentrations in both the river water (up to 530 μg/L and 2500 μg/L,
respectively) and groundwater (up to 28 μg/L and 14 μg/L, respectively). In the same
study, the concentrations in the undiluted effluent from PETL were 2.1 mg/L (cetirizine) and 14 mg/L (ciprofloxacin). Although the well with the highest levels of
the two antibiotics is no longer used for human consumption, other wells that had
a lower but still very high concentration of antibiotics were used for drinking water
supply.
In the same area of the Patancheru region, the groundwater was sampled in 2011
and analyzed for fluoroquinolone antibiotics (Rutgersson et al. 2014). The maximum
concentration was 770 ng/L for ciprofloxacin, more than 10 times lower than in
the 2008 study (Fick et al. 2009), probably because the discharge from PETL into
the Isakavagu stream had gradually decreased. Nevertheless, the authors stated that
the discharge from isolated industries or illegal dumping would also contribute to
groundwater contamination in areas upstream from PETL.
In Varanasi, beside the Ganges River in northern India, Lapworth et al. (2018)
reported the prevalent occurrence of several pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethoxazole (detection frequency: 77%), sulfanilamide (62%), carbamazepine (27%), and
sucralose (15%), in both shallow (<100 mbgl) and deep (>100 mbgl) groundwater.
High detection frequencies and concentrations of contaminants were found not only
in shallow wells but also in some large municipal deep wells, which have a long
history (>30 years) of intense pumping.
Sharma et al. (2019) studied the occurrence of 31 CECs in 14 groundwater samples
along the Ganges River and found that the most frequently detected compounds
were caffeine (100%), DEET (100%), and sucralose (100%), followed by ketoprofen
(93%), carbamazepine (79%), hydrochlorothiazide (71%), and cyclamate (50%).
The sum of detected PPCPs in the groundwater ranged from 34 to 293 ng/L, and
the geometric mean was approximately half that of the PPCPs found in the river
waters. In the groundwater, caffeine showed the highest concentration (15–262 ng),
followed by ibuprofen (<15–49.4 ng/L), sucralose (0.53–24.6 ng/L), and ketoprofen
(<15–23.4 ng/L). Elevated groundwater concentrations were generally observed in
the urbanized and industrialized middle and lower reaches of the Ganges River, but
specific elevated concentrations (e.g., sucralose) were also observed in the semirural
and rural upper Himalayan reach.
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Early studies on PPCPs in Indian groundwater focused on antibiotics (Fick et al.
2009; Rutgersson et al. 2014). Fick et al. (2009) reported very high levels of antibiotics in the groundwater and river water in the Patancheru region, along the Isakavagu
stream and Nakkavagu River, in 2008. A local WWTP, Patancheru Enviro Tech Limited (PETL), received wastewater from pharmaceutical manufacturers (Larsson et al.
2007) and discharged effluents with extremely high levels of pharmaceuticals (mg/L
level) into the Isakavagu stream. As a result, cetirizine and ciprofloxacin showed
extremely high concentrations in both the river water (up to 530 μg/L and 2500 μg/L,
respectively) and groundwater (up to 28 μg/L and 14 μg/L, respectively). In the same
study, the concentrations in the undiluted effluent from PETL were 2.1 mg/L (cetirizine) and 14 mg/L (ciprofloxacin). Although the well with the highest levels of
the two antibiotics is no longer used for human consumption, other wells that had
a lower but still very high concentration of antibiotics were used for drinking water
supply.
In the same area of the Patancheru region, the groundwater was sampled in 2011
and analyzed for fluoroquinolone antibiotics (Rutgersson et al. 2014). The maximum
concentration was 770 ng/L for ciprofloxacin, more than 10 times lower than in
the 2008 study (Fick et al. 2009), probably because the discharge from PETL into
the Isakavagu stream had gradually decreased. Nevertheless, the authors stated that
the discharge from isolated industries or illegal dumping would also contribute to
groundwater contamination in areas upstream from PETL.
In Varanasi, beside the Ganges River in northern India, Lapworth et al. (2018)
reported the prevalent occurrence of several pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethoxazole (detection frequency: 77%), sulfanilamide (62%), carbamazepine (27%), and
sucralose (15%), in both shallow (<100 mbgl) and deep (>100 mbgl) groundwater.
High detection frequencies and concentrations of contaminants were found not only
in shallow wells but also in some large municipal deep wells, which have a long
history (>30 years) of intense pumping.
Sharma et al. (2019) studied the occurrence of 31 CECs in 14 groundwater samples
along the Ganges River and found that the most frequently detected compounds
were caffeine (100%), DEET (100%), and sucralose (100%), followed by ketoprofen
(93%), carbamazepine (79%), hydrochlorothiazide (71%), and cyclamate (50%).
The sum of detected PPCPs in the groundwater ranged from 34 to 293 ng/L, and
the geometric mean was approximately half that of the PPCPs found in the river
waters. In the groundwater, caffeine showed the highest concentration (15–262 ng),
followed by ibuprofen (<15–49.4 ng/L), sucralose (0.53–24.6 ng/L), and ketoprofen
(<15–23.4 ng/L). Elevated groundwater concentrations were generally observed in
the urbanized and industrialized middle and lower reaches of the Ganges River, but
specific elevated concentrations (e.g., sucralose) were also observed in the semirural
and rural upper Himalayan reach.