310
D. Haase
et al. 2017). Illnesses caused by heat and pollution dramatically limit the quality of
life in cities and incur major costs to urban society, especially for healthcare, as well
as reducing labour capacity.
Regulatory ES provided by intact ecosystems definitely and effectively help to
minimise these environmental pressures (TEEB Germany 2017): During spring and
summer heat waves, such as Europe has experienced in 2018 and 2019, there is a
significant increase in illness, morbidity and mortality rates (Gabriel and Endlicher
2011). For example, estimates of up to 5% of deaths in the city of Berlin are linked to
heat (Gabriel and Endlicher 2011). Urban vegetation such as trees as well as various
grasslands and meadows can significantly reduce peak summer temperatures (Weber
et al. 2014a). Records show that a green space measuring 50 to 100 m wide is up
to 3 °C cooler on hot, wind-still days than the surrounding developed area (Pauleit
et al. 2018). Moreover, green spaces have a cooling impact on their direct urban
surroundings (Andersson et al. 2019). In addition to heat relief, urban green spaces
play a major role in air pollution control (Pauleit et al. 2018). Trees filter particulates
by between 5 and 15%, depending on height, density and configuration (Weber
et al. 2014a). In residential neighbourhoods, nature is especially beneficial to human
health, as green spaces invite residents to spend time outdoors and to participate
in active recreation such as sports, games, or even passive nature enjoyment and
relaxation (Rall et al. 2017). A number of studies have provided very good and clear
evidence that being outdoors supports reductions of aggression and anxiety, and, vice
versa, raises concentration and performance levels across all age groups (Bosch and
Sang 2017).
In terms of urban society and the social life in cities, which are also core concerns
of urban land management, healthy ecosystems contribute to strengthening social
cohesion by providing “aesthetic places for communication” (Kremer et al. 2016).
When freely accessible, urban parks, gardens, rivers and lakes serve as refuges for
urban residents to go to for multiple leisure and social activities with family and
friends (Voigt et al. 2014). Allotments and community gardens facilitate encounters,
joint activities and intercultural exchange (Pauleit et al. 2018). Growing local food
in the city—be it in different types of gardens, on balconies or in abandoned cemeteries—increases urban self-sufficiency (Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al. 2015), and, at
the same time, raises awareness about regional and healthy food (counteracting
problems such as obesity among children and adults). Thus, recreational ecosystem
services contribute to urban public health in multiple ways. However, these ES only
arise if all groups of residents see these aforementioned green spaces as available,
accessible, and attractive (Biernacka and Kronenberg 2018). With respect to the last
of these, one key component of this attractiveness of green spaces is biodiversity—
and is something that park users recognise (Fischer et al. 2018). This is a clear signal
for more and better (more consistent) nature conservation in cities for ensuring the
delivery of necessary ES.
Many of the aforementioned ES that nature delivers in cities are to a large extent
neglected or simply ignored by urban planners and decision-makers dealing with land
use and urban landscape/surface design (Kain et al. 2016; Kaczorowska et al. 2016;
TEEB Germany 2017). Thus, the ES concept that is proposed here is a tool focusing
D. Haase
et al. 2017). Illnesses caused by heat and pollution dramatically limit the quality of
life in cities and incur major costs to urban society, especially for healthcare, as well
as reducing labour capacity.
Regulatory ES provided by intact ecosystems definitely and effectively help to
minimise these environmental pressures (TEEB Germany 2017): During spring and
summer heat waves, such as Europe has experienced in 2018 and 2019, there is a
significant increase in illness, morbidity and mortality rates (Gabriel and Endlicher
2011). For example, estimates of up to 5% of deaths in the city of Berlin are linked to
heat (Gabriel and Endlicher 2011). Urban vegetation such as trees as well as various
grasslands and meadows can significantly reduce peak summer temperatures (Weber
et al. 2014a). Records show that a green space measuring 50 to 100 m wide is up
to 3 °C cooler on hot, wind-still days than the surrounding developed area (Pauleit
et al. 2018). Moreover, green spaces have a cooling impact on their direct urban
surroundings (Andersson et al. 2019). In addition to heat relief, urban green spaces
play a major role in air pollution control (Pauleit et al. 2018). Trees filter particulates
by between 5 and 15%, depending on height, density and configuration (Weber
et al. 2014a). In residential neighbourhoods, nature is especially beneficial to human
health, as green spaces invite residents to spend time outdoors and to participate
in active recreation such as sports, games, or even passive nature enjoyment and
relaxation (Rall et al. 2017). A number of studies have provided very good and clear
evidence that being outdoors supports reductions of aggression and anxiety, and, vice
versa, raises concentration and performance levels across all age groups (Bosch and
Sang 2017).
In terms of urban society and the social life in cities, which are also core concerns
of urban land management, healthy ecosystems contribute to strengthening social
cohesion by providing “aesthetic places for communication” (Kremer et al. 2016).
When freely accessible, urban parks, gardens, rivers and lakes serve as refuges for
urban residents to go to for multiple leisure and social activities with family and
friends (Voigt et al. 2014). Allotments and community gardens facilitate encounters,
joint activities and intercultural exchange (Pauleit et al. 2018). Growing local food
in the city—be it in different types of gardens, on balconies or in abandoned cemeteries—increases urban self-sufficiency (Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al. 2015), and, at
the same time, raises awareness about regional and healthy food (counteracting
problems such as obesity among children and adults). Thus, recreational ecosystem
services contribute to urban public health in multiple ways. However, these ES only
arise if all groups of residents see these aforementioned green spaces as available,
accessible, and attractive (Biernacka and Kronenberg 2018). With respect to the last
of these, one key component of this attractiveness of green spaces is biodiversity—
and is something that park users recognise (Fischer et al. 2018). This is a clear signal
for more and better (more consistent) nature conservation in cities for ensuring the
delivery of necessary ES.
Many of the aforementioned ES that nature delivers in cities are to a large extent
neglected or simply ignored by urban planners and decision-makers dealing with land
use and urban landscape/surface design (Kain et al. 2016; Kaczorowska et al. 2016;
TEEB Germany 2017). Thus, the ES concept that is proposed here is a tool focusing