because irrigation is not conducted in this period. Additionally, the seasonal variation of groundwater level also
influences the soil moisture conditions. As a result of these
water actions, paddy soils have unique characteristics, such
as separation into an oxidized layer and a reduced layer, the
formation of mottles and concretion of iron and manganese,
and gley and pseudo-gley horizons.
By contrast, the impact of water is small for upland fields.
However, the topsoil of upland fields is frequently disturbed
by plowing because untilled cropping is not dominant in
Japan. Deep tillage for the enlargement of the root zone and
the improvement of water permeability is also conducted,
especially in terrestrial soils with problematic physical
properties. Additionally, upland soils are subject to chemical
impact due to the input of fertilizer and organic matter such
as compost; this contrasts with the situation in paddy fields,
because the demand for fertilizer in upland cropping, especially for vegetables, is generally larger than it is for paddy
rice. The input of animal manure compost is especially large
in areas where livestock farming is active and the utilization
of animal waste is required, such as southern Kyushu.
The farming of some upland crops has particular effects
on soils. Because acidic soils are suitable for tea cultivation,
tea garden soils are usually acidified to pH (H 2 O) 4.5 or
lower by soil management, such as the heavy application of
ammonium sulfate. Even for potato, for which acidic soils
are not suitable, the soil reaction is still managed to be
acidic, in order to counter the common scab, a serious
soilborne disease that can be suppressed by soil acidity. In
Andosol areas, farmers prefer growing potato or sweet
potato in brown subsoil or transferred non-Andosol, rather
than black topsoil, because it is assumed that the appearance
of the potato skins is better in light-colored soils. The
swapping of subsoil to topsoil or soil dressing is often
conducted in potato-producing Andosol areas for this purpose. In burdock and Chinese yam fields, planting rows are
tilled deeply by a trenching machine. Trenches about 20 cm
in width and 1 m in depth, filled with a mixture of topsoil
and subsoil, are observed in soil profile surveys.
References
Astronomical Observatory of Japan (ed) (2018) Chronological Scientific Tables 2019 (Rika Nenpyo 2019). Maruzen, Tokyo. (in
Japanese)
Bockheim JG, Hartemink AE (2017) The Soils of Wisconsin, pp 393,
Springer
Broecker WS (1984) Terminations. In: Berger A, Imbrie J, Hays J,
Kukla G, Saltzman B (eds) Milankovitch and Climate, Reidel,
Dordrecht, pp 687–698
Chiba T (1991) Hageyama no kenkyu (A study of bald mountains),
revised edition. Sosiete, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Cho K (1986) Fundamental problems and conditions for expansion of
upland farming. Jpn. J Farm Manage 23(3):4–17 (In Japanese)
Dansgaard W (1964) Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16:436–
468
Division 3 of Soils (1977) Classification of cultivated soils. 2nd
Approximation. National Institute for Agricultural Sciences. (in
Japanese)
Emiliani C (1955) Pleistocene temperatures. Journal Geol 63:538–578
Farjon A (2013) Chamaecyparis obtusa. The IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species 2013. e.T42212A2962056.http://dx.doi.org/10.
2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42212A2962056.en. Accessed 28
Sep 2018
The Fifth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature of
Japanese Society of Pedology (2017) Soil classification system of
Japan. (in Japanese)
Forest Experimental Station (1952) Forest Soil Profiles. Forest
Experimental Station, Tokyo (in Japanese with English summery)
Forest Soil Division (1976) Classification of forest soils in Japan
(1975). Bulletin of the government forest experiment station 280:1–
28 (in Japanese with English summary)
Fujio S, Imamura M, Nishimoto T (2005) When did the wet-rice
cultivation begin in Japanese Archipelago? Sokendai Review of
Cultural and Social Studies 1:69–96 (in Japanese)
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (2019) Geospatial information library. https://maps.gsi.go.jp/ (June 2019) (in Japanese)
Hatano S (1979) Landform classification map of postglacial dissection
front and prediction of slope failure. Abstract of research presentation, Japan Society of Erosion Control Engineering, pp 16–17. (in
Japanese)
Horie K (2002) Studies on the chemical characteristics of the ultramafic
plants in Hokkaido. J Rakuno Gakuen University, Natural Science
26:155–264(in Japanese with English summary)
Igarashi Y, Oba T (2006) Fluctuations in the East Asian monsoon over
the last 144 ka in the northwest Pacific based on a high-resolution
pollen analysis of IMAGES core MD01-2421. Quaternary Science
Reviews 25:1447–1459
Inoue K (1981) Implications of eolian dusts to 14Å minerals in the
volcanic ash soils in Japan. Pedologist 25:97–118 (in Japanese with
English summary)
Inoue K, Mizota C (1988) Eolian origin of 2:1 layer silicates and fine
quartz in Andsols and red-yellow soils developed on limestones and
basalts. Clay Science(Nendo Kagaku), 28:30–47. (in Japanese with
English summary)
Inoue K, Naruse T (1987) Physical, chemical, and mineralogical
characteristics of modern eolian dust in Japan and rate of dust
deposition. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 33:327–345
Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, NARO (2019) Soil inventory in Japan. http://soil-inventory.dc.affrc.go.jp/ (June 2019) (in
Japanese)
International Commission on stratigraphy (2018) International
Chronostratigraphic
Chart.
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/
ChronostratChart2018-07.pdf (July 2018)
Ishizaka T, Ono A, Kadowaki R (1981) Characteristics of the aeolian
dust over Japan and its origin. Tenki 28:651–665 (in Japanese)
Ishizuka S, Kawamuro K, Imaya A, Torii A, Morisada K (2014)
Latitudinal gradient of C4 grass contribution to Black Soil organic
carbon and correlation between d 13 C and the melanic index in
Japanese forest stands. Biogeochemistry 118:339–355
IUSS Working Group WRB (2014) World Reference Base for Soil
Resources 2014. International soil classification system for naming
48
K. Tamura et al.
influences the soil moisture conditions. As a result of these
water actions, paddy soils have unique characteristics, such
as separation into an oxidized layer and a reduced layer, the
formation of mottles and concretion of iron and manganese,
and gley and pseudo-gley horizons.
By contrast, the impact of water is small for upland fields.
However, the topsoil of upland fields is frequently disturbed
by plowing because untilled cropping is not dominant in
Japan. Deep tillage for the enlargement of the root zone and
the improvement of water permeability is also conducted,
especially in terrestrial soils with problematic physical
properties. Additionally, upland soils are subject to chemical
impact due to the input of fertilizer and organic matter such
as compost; this contrasts with the situation in paddy fields,
because the demand for fertilizer in upland cropping, especially for vegetables, is generally larger than it is for paddy
rice. The input of animal manure compost is especially large
in areas where livestock farming is active and the utilization
of animal waste is required, such as southern Kyushu.
The farming of some upland crops has particular effects
on soils. Because acidic soils are suitable for tea cultivation,
tea garden soils are usually acidified to pH (H 2 O) 4.5 or
lower by soil management, such as the heavy application of
ammonium sulfate. Even for potato, for which acidic soils
are not suitable, the soil reaction is still managed to be
acidic, in order to counter the common scab, a serious
soilborne disease that can be suppressed by soil acidity. In
Andosol areas, farmers prefer growing potato or sweet
potato in brown subsoil or transferred non-Andosol, rather
than black topsoil, because it is assumed that the appearance
of the potato skins is better in light-colored soils. The
swapping of subsoil to topsoil or soil dressing is often
conducted in potato-producing Andosol areas for this purpose. In burdock and Chinese yam fields, planting rows are
tilled deeply by a trenching machine. Trenches about 20 cm
in width and 1 m in depth, filled with a mixture of topsoil
and subsoil, are observed in soil profile surveys.
References
Astronomical Observatory of Japan (ed) (2018) Chronological Scientific Tables 2019 (Rika Nenpyo 2019). Maruzen, Tokyo. (in
Japanese)
Bockheim JG, Hartemink AE (2017) The Soils of Wisconsin, pp 393,
Springer
Broecker WS (1984) Terminations. In: Berger A, Imbrie J, Hays J,
Kukla G, Saltzman B (eds) Milankovitch and Climate, Reidel,
Dordrecht, pp 687–698
Chiba T (1991) Hageyama no kenkyu (A study of bald mountains),
revised edition. Sosiete, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Cho K (1986) Fundamental problems and conditions for expansion of
upland farming. Jpn. J Farm Manage 23(3):4–17 (In Japanese)
Dansgaard W (1964) Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16:436–
468
Division 3 of Soils (1977) Classification of cultivated soils. 2nd
Approximation. National Institute for Agricultural Sciences. (in
Japanese)
Emiliani C (1955) Pleistocene temperatures. Journal Geol 63:538–578
Farjon A (2013) Chamaecyparis obtusa. The IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species 2013. e.T42212A2962056.http://dx.doi.org/10.
2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42212A2962056.en. Accessed 28
Sep 2018
The Fifth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature of
Japanese Society of Pedology (2017) Soil classification system of
Japan. (in Japanese)
Forest Experimental Station (1952) Forest Soil Profiles. Forest
Experimental Station, Tokyo (in Japanese with English summery)
Forest Soil Division (1976) Classification of forest soils in Japan
(1975). Bulletin of the government forest experiment station 280:1–
28 (in Japanese with English summary)
Fujio S, Imamura M, Nishimoto T (2005) When did the wet-rice
cultivation begin in Japanese Archipelago? Sokendai Review of
Cultural and Social Studies 1:69–96 (in Japanese)
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (2019) Geospatial information library. https://maps.gsi.go.jp/ (June 2019) (in Japanese)
Hatano S (1979) Landform classification map of postglacial dissection
front and prediction of slope failure. Abstract of research presentation, Japan Society of Erosion Control Engineering, pp 16–17. (in
Japanese)
Horie K (2002) Studies on the chemical characteristics of the ultramafic
plants in Hokkaido. J Rakuno Gakuen University, Natural Science
26:155–264(in Japanese with English summary)
Igarashi Y, Oba T (2006) Fluctuations in the East Asian monsoon over
the last 144 ka in the northwest Pacific based on a high-resolution
pollen analysis of IMAGES core MD01-2421. Quaternary Science
Reviews 25:1447–1459
Inoue K (1981) Implications of eolian dusts to 14Å minerals in the
volcanic ash soils in Japan. Pedologist 25:97–118 (in Japanese with
English summary)
Inoue K, Mizota C (1988) Eolian origin of 2:1 layer silicates and fine
quartz in Andsols and red-yellow soils developed on limestones and
basalts. Clay Science(Nendo Kagaku), 28:30–47. (in Japanese with
English summary)
Inoue K, Naruse T (1987) Physical, chemical, and mineralogical
characteristics of modern eolian dust in Japan and rate of dust
deposition. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 33:327–345
Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, NARO (2019) Soil inventory in Japan. http://soil-inventory.dc.affrc.go.jp/ (June 2019) (in
Japanese)
International Commission on stratigraphy (2018) International
Chronostratigraphic
Chart.
http://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/
ChronostratChart2018-07.pdf (July 2018)
Ishizaka T, Ono A, Kadowaki R (1981) Characteristics of the aeolian
dust over Japan and its origin. Tenki 28:651–665 (in Japanese)
Ishizuka S, Kawamuro K, Imaya A, Torii A, Morisada K (2014)
Latitudinal gradient of C4 grass contribution to Black Soil organic
carbon and correlation between d 13 C and the melanic index in
Japanese forest stands. Biogeochemistry 118:339–355
IUSS Working Group WRB (2014) World Reference Base for Soil
Resources 2014. International soil classification system for naming
48
K. Tamura et al.