11 Transforming Exploitative Land-Based Economy to Reduce …
233
areas from the past environmental damages with extra-local intervention. Continuous pressure from NGOs has forced both the governments and the big oil palm
companies to seek ways for enhancing economic productivity while not causing
socio-environmental issues.
Reconciling Development and Conservation: Proposals,
Progress and Problems
Transformation of exploitative land-based economies has gained great attention due
to its urgency in face of rapid environmental destruction, global warming effects,
unavoidable economic bottlenecks and mushrooming social conflicts. Conventional
wealth generation from timber extraction followed by large-scale cash crop expansion
cannot be continued as a sustainable way of development. Multiple strategies have
been proposed, however, with priorities given to environment, economy and society to
a different extent and received various responses from stakeholders. The following
sections describe the four proposals for transforming the economic activities into
more sustainable ones, their progress and problems faced.
Boosting Upstream Productivity of Cash Crops
Pushing for higher production per unit of land has been deemed the most direct
measure to reduce further unsustainable expansion (Garnett et al. 2013). The most
widely cultivated crop as well as the major cash generator in Kalimantan, oil palm,
has always been characterised as the most productive oil crop in terms of land area
used. Large industrial players together with public entities have been investing in
technology breakthroughs for boosting upstream productivity of oil palm, motivated
by the limited land availability in the country for future expansion (Corley and Tinker
2015; Ali Nordin et al. 2017). With substantial financial inputs in upgrading crop
breeding and genomics, as well as better agricultural management, the breakthrough
in yield was reported from time to time in certain experimental plots—the most
recent peak was reported at 12 t/ha/yr (Woittiez et al. 2017).
Yet, the historical data in Borneo shows that there has no substantial improvement in recent years as the CPO yields from matured plantations fluctuate in the
range of 2.7–4.4 t/ha/yr in 2011–2017 (Fig. 11.4a). It seems that the yield improvement is stuck within this range. Furthermore, the crop’s performance can be quite
uneven across the island. The agro-ecological characteristics like soil type and latitude, which vary from place to place, are the major constraints for yield breakthrough
(Mulyani and Sarwani 2013). For example, although the economic outcome of oil
palm cultivation on marginal soils can be greatly improved from very poor to satisfying with intensive agro-inputs and proper mitigating practices, the yield can hardly
233
areas from the past environmental damages with extra-local intervention. Continuous pressure from NGOs has forced both the governments and the big oil palm
companies to seek ways for enhancing economic productivity while not causing
socio-environmental issues.
Reconciling Development and Conservation: Proposals,
Progress and Problems
Transformation of exploitative land-based economies has gained great attention due
to its urgency in face of rapid environmental destruction, global warming effects,
unavoidable economic bottlenecks and mushrooming social conflicts. Conventional
wealth generation from timber extraction followed by large-scale cash crop expansion
cannot be continued as a sustainable way of development. Multiple strategies have
been proposed, however, with priorities given to environment, economy and society to
a different extent and received various responses from stakeholders. The following
sections describe the four proposals for transforming the economic activities into
more sustainable ones, their progress and problems faced.
Boosting Upstream Productivity of Cash Crops
Pushing for higher production per unit of land has been deemed the most direct
measure to reduce further unsustainable expansion (Garnett et al. 2013). The most
widely cultivated crop as well as the major cash generator in Kalimantan, oil palm,
has always been characterised as the most productive oil crop in terms of land area
used. Large industrial players together with public entities have been investing in
technology breakthroughs for boosting upstream productivity of oil palm, motivated
by the limited land availability in the country for future expansion (Corley and Tinker
2015; Ali Nordin et al. 2017). With substantial financial inputs in upgrading crop
breeding and genomics, as well as better agricultural management, the breakthrough
in yield was reported from time to time in certain experimental plots—the most
recent peak was reported at 12 t/ha/yr (Woittiez et al. 2017).
Yet, the historical data in Borneo shows that there has no substantial improvement in recent years as the CPO yields from matured plantations fluctuate in the
range of 2.7–4.4 t/ha/yr in 2011–2017 (Fig. 11.4a). It seems that the yield improvement is stuck within this range. Furthermore, the crop’s performance can be quite
uneven across the island. The agro-ecological characteristics like soil type and latitude, which vary from place to place, are the major constraints for yield breakthrough
(Mulyani and Sarwani 2013). For example, although the economic outcome of oil
palm cultivation on marginal soils can be greatly improved from very poor to satisfying with intensive agro-inputs and proper mitigating practices, the yield can hardly