8 Measuring Vulnerability of Coastal Ecosystem and Identifying …
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had disappeared by more than 25% (Spalding et al. 2010; UNEP 2014). Especially
for the Caribbean Islands which have fairly dense mangrove forests, they have lost
around 24% in the last quarter century (Polidoro et al. 2010). However, researchers
still doubt whether the loss is a direct influence on climate change or other factors.
The possible emphasis is on mangrove loss which is addressed in human destruction
activities and environmental changes that will continue to occur in the future (Nurse
et al. 2014), although the possibility of indirect influence from climate change may be
influential. Some studies offer predictive analysis of what might occur in mangroves
if temperatures increase, sea levels continue to rise, and changes in the composition of
gases in the atmosphere and changes in ocean conditions occur (Alongi 2007; Gilman
et al. 2008; Record et al. 2013; Lugo et al. 2014; Alongi 2015; Short et al. 2016).
Climate change affects mangrove forests including in the Caribbean region especially
in changes to air and ocean temperature variations, ocean chemical composition, high
rainfall, increased wind strength and direction in coastal areas, sea level rise, wave
changes such as extreme storms and droughts (Nurse et al. 2014).
Mangrove forests in Indonesia are found in the estuary areas of large islands, such
as on the east coast of Sumatra Island, Kalimantan, several beaches of Sulawesi Island
and Java, and along the coast of Irian Jaya. On Irian Island, Kalimantan and Sumatra
Island have many large and long rivers with various types of deltas, as a result of
the river currents that carry material to the estuary and tide from the sea (Pramudji
2000). Mangrove forests in Indonesia have a high diversity. About 15 plant families,
with 18 genera and 41 species, and 116 related species are found in the mangrove
ecosystem in Indonesia. Mangrove forests are also home to hundreds of animal
species, including mammals, reptiles, birds, and marine fauna (Santoso 2000). The
ecological and economic functions of mangroves are very high and directly affect the
lives of coastal communities. Besides the mangrove tree line, it can protect coastal
communities from various wind pressure and extreme conditions in coastal areas.
At present, most of the mangrove land is finally used as residential land or pond
cultivation at the expense of a large area. In several regions in Indonesia, traditional
use of mangrove products, usually on a small amount (Kusmana and Sukristijiono
2016).
Measuring Vulnerability Values on Coastal Ecosystems
Several studies have revealed the results of evaluating the level of vulnerability of
ecosystems and their relationship to human activities (Halpern et al. 2007). In this
discussion, we try to make several approaches, especially for Eastern Indonesia
by looking at the potential specific threats to an ecosystem by taking into account
the recovery and sensitivity of each species in specific ecosystems, especially coral
reefs, which address the vulnerability of zooxanthella, seagrass habitats which are
addressed in susceptibility to increasing temperatures and rising sea levels that have
an impact on sea turbidity, mangrove forests specifically on sea level rise in the structure and potential for successful reproduction of mangroves. The specific approach
157
had disappeared by more than 25% (Spalding et al. 2010; UNEP 2014). Especially
for the Caribbean Islands which have fairly dense mangrove forests, they have lost
around 24% in the last quarter century (Polidoro et al. 2010). However, researchers
still doubt whether the loss is a direct influence on climate change or other factors.
The possible emphasis is on mangrove loss which is addressed in human destruction
activities and environmental changes that will continue to occur in the future (Nurse
et al. 2014), although the possibility of indirect influence from climate change may be
influential. Some studies offer predictive analysis of what might occur in mangroves
if temperatures increase, sea levels continue to rise, and changes in the composition of
gases in the atmosphere and changes in ocean conditions occur (Alongi 2007; Gilman
et al. 2008; Record et al. 2013; Lugo et al. 2014; Alongi 2015; Short et al. 2016).
Climate change affects mangrove forests including in the Caribbean region especially
in changes to air and ocean temperature variations, ocean chemical composition, high
rainfall, increased wind strength and direction in coastal areas, sea level rise, wave
changes such as extreme storms and droughts (Nurse et al. 2014).
Mangrove forests in Indonesia are found in the estuary areas of large islands, such
as on the east coast of Sumatra Island, Kalimantan, several beaches of Sulawesi Island
and Java, and along the coast of Irian Jaya. On Irian Island, Kalimantan and Sumatra
Island have many large and long rivers with various types of deltas, as a result of
the river currents that carry material to the estuary and tide from the sea (Pramudji
2000). Mangrove forests in Indonesia have a high diversity. About 15 plant families,
with 18 genera and 41 species, and 116 related species are found in the mangrove
ecosystem in Indonesia. Mangrove forests are also home to hundreds of animal
species, including mammals, reptiles, birds, and marine fauna (Santoso 2000). The
ecological and economic functions of mangroves are very high and directly affect the
lives of coastal communities. Besides the mangrove tree line, it can protect coastal
communities from various wind pressure and extreme conditions in coastal areas.
At present, most of the mangrove land is finally used as residential land or pond
cultivation at the expense of a large area. In several regions in Indonesia, traditional
use of mangrove products, usually on a small amount (Kusmana and Sukristijiono
2016).
Measuring Vulnerability Values on Coastal Ecosystems
Several studies have revealed the results of evaluating the level of vulnerability of
ecosystems and their relationship to human activities (Halpern et al. 2007). In this
discussion, we try to make several approaches, especially for Eastern Indonesia
by looking at the potential specific threats to an ecosystem by taking into account
the recovery and sensitivity of each species in specific ecosystems, especially coral
reefs, which address the vulnerability of zooxanthella, seagrass habitats which are
addressed in susceptibility to increasing temperatures and rising sea levels that have
an impact on sea turbidity, mangrove forests specifically on sea level rise in the structure and potential for successful reproduction of mangroves. The specific approach