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M. Kasim
species in the tropics have a different tolerance for increasing seawater temperatures
(Campbell et al. 2006).
In general, seagrass species in the tropics have a higher optimal growth rate than
temperate species. This can be seen with the response of seagrass which can continue
to survive with temperatures as high as 32 °C, while others begin to show leaves death
rates above 26 °C (Lee et al. 2007). In most tropical species, reduced growth and
increased respiration rates are seen at higher temperatures (Short et al. 2016), and
extreme temperatures are known to reduce seagrass growth and cause death (Collier
and Waycott 2014).
In Indonesia, various studies have identified more than 200 species of fish, 85
crustaceans, and other marine species in seagrass beds. At low tide, many coastal
villagers collect shells, shrimp, and crabs in seagrass beds. In Banten Bay, West Java,
a stretch of 330 ha of Enhalus acoroides and Thalassia hemprichii (ha) provides
economic opportunities for 50 fishermen (Hutomo 1997). The record of seagrass
rehabilitation in Indonesia is very limited, with information available only from two
institutions. Oceanographic Research Center–Indonesian Institute of Sciences (RCOLIPI) began rehabilitation in 1988 at the Seribu Islands, Jakarta, and then continued
in 2000 in Banten. The Seribu Islands National Park initiated rehabilitation in 2006.
Both institutions use seagrass transplants (Asian Development Bank 2014).
Seagrass beds in Southeast Sulawesi up to 2018 reached an area of 10,762 ha
with nine seagrass species and were dominated by four other main species Enhalus
acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, and Halodule uninervis. The
distribution pattern of seagrass is spread in tidal areas up to subtidal. Most coastal
communities make use of seagrasses by extracting large amounts of resources in the
seagrasses including Portunus pelagicus, Holothuria sp., Tripneustes gratilla, and
various other commodities. There is no record on climate change impact on seagrass
in Southeast Sulawesi.
Climate Change Impact on Mangrove Forest
Mangrove ecosystems are also affected by global climate change, although the effects
of damage will not be as large as coral reefs. Some of the effects of climate change on
mangrove forests are an increase in sea levels, rainstorms, changes in temperature,
dryness of the land, moisture for a long time, and an increase in temperature for a
long time. All changes that are driven by climate change including the anthropogenic
effects of land use over and including water resources in watersheds can directly and
indirectly affect the distribution and performance of mangroves. However, several
other environmental factors will also greatly affect the physiological and ecological
performance of mangroves.
Several studies revealed that there has been loss of mangrove forests in recent
years including in the Caribbean region. FAO explained that the mangrove forest
felled was around 3660 ha and partially suffered significant damage in the period
1980–2005 (FAO 2007a, b). Other studies revealed that the world’s mangrove forests
M. Kasim
species in the tropics have a different tolerance for increasing seawater temperatures
(Campbell et al. 2006).
In general, seagrass species in the tropics have a higher optimal growth rate than
temperate species. This can be seen with the response of seagrass which can continue
to survive with temperatures as high as 32 °C, while others begin to show leaves death
rates above 26 °C (Lee et al. 2007). In most tropical species, reduced growth and
increased respiration rates are seen at higher temperatures (Short et al. 2016), and
extreme temperatures are known to reduce seagrass growth and cause death (Collier
and Waycott 2014).
In Indonesia, various studies have identified more than 200 species of fish, 85
crustaceans, and other marine species in seagrass beds. At low tide, many coastal
villagers collect shells, shrimp, and crabs in seagrass beds. In Banten Bay, West Java,
a stretch of 330 ha of Enhalus acoroides and Thalassia hemprichii (ha) provides
economic opportunities for 50 fishermen (Hutomo 1997). The record of seagrass
rehabilitation in Indonesia is very limited, with information available only from two
institutions. Oceanographic Research Center–Indonesian Institute of Sciences (RCOLIPI) began rehabilitation in 1988 at the Seribu Islands, Jakarta, and then continued
in 2000 in Banten. The Seribu Islands National Park initiated rehabilitation in 2006.
Both institutions use seagrass transplants (Asian Development Bank 2014).
Seagrass beds in Southeast Sulawesi up to 2018 reached an area of 10,762 ha
with nine seagrass species and were dominated by four other main species Enhalus
acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, and Halodule uninervis. The
distribution pattern of seagrass is spread in tidal areas up to subtidal. Most coastal
communities make use of seagrasses by extracting large amounts of resources in the
seagrasses including Portunus pelagicus, Holothuria sp., Tripneustes gratilla, and
various other commodities. There is no record on climate change impact on seagrass
in Southeast Sulawesi.
Climate Change Impact on Mangrove Forest
Mangrove ecosystems are also affected by global climate change, although the effects
of damage will not be as large as coral reefs. Some of the effects of climate change on
mangrove forests are an increase in sea levels, rainstorms, changes in temperature,
dryness of the land, moisture for a long time, and an increase in temperature for a
long time. All changes that are driven by climate change including the anthropogenic
effects of land use over and including water resources in watersheds can directly and
indirectly affect the distribution and performance of mangroves. However, several
other environmental factors will also greatly affect the physiological and ecological
performance of mangroves.
Several studies revealed that there has been loss of mangrove forests in recent
years including in the Caribbean region. FAO explained that the mangrove forest
felled was around 3660 ha and partially suffered significant damage in the period
1980–2005 (FAO 2007a, b). Other studies revealed that the world’s mangrove forests