Leclair S, Ansan-Melayah D, Rouxel T, Balesdent M-H
(1996) Meiotic behaviour of the minichromosome
in the phytopathogenic ascomycete Leptosphaeria
maculans. Curr Genet 30:541–548
Levin DA, Palestis BG, Jones RN, Trivers R (2005)
Phyletic hot spots for B chromosomes in angiosperms. Evolution 59:962–969
Lievens B, Rep M, Thomma BPHJ (2008) Recent developments in the molecular discrimination of formae speciales of Fusarium oxysporum. Pest Manag
Sci 64:781–788. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1564
Lo Presti L, Lanver D, Schweizer G, Tanaka S, Liang L,
Tollot M, Zuccaro A, Reissmann S, KAHMANN R
(2015) Fungal effectors and plant susceptibility.
Annu Rev Plant Biol 66:513–545. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-arplant-043014-114623
Ma W, Gabriel TS, Martis MM, Gursinsky T, Schubert
V, Vra ´na J, Dolez ˇel J, Grundlach H, Altschmied L,
Scholz U, Himmelbach A, Behrens S-E, BanaeiMoghaddam AM, Houben A (2017) Rye B chromosomes encode a functional Argonaute-like protein
with in vitro slicer activities similar to its a chromosome paralog. New Phytol 213:916–928. https://
doi.org/10.1111/nph.14110
Ma L-J, van der Does HC, Borkovich KA, Coleman JJ,
Daboussi M-J, Di Pietro A, Dufresne M, Freitag M,
Grabherr M, Henrissat B, Houterman PM, Kang S,
Shim W-B, Woloshuk C, Xie X, Xu J-R, Antoniw J,
Baker SE, Bluhm BH, Breakspear A, Brown DW,
Butchko RAE, Chapman S, Coulson R, Coutinho
PM, Danchin EGJ, Diener A, Gale LR, Gardiner
DM, Goff S, Hammond-Kosack KE, Hilburn K,
Hua-Van A, Jonkers W, Kazan K, Kodira CD,
Koehrsen M, Kumar L, Lee Y-H, Li L, Manners
JM, Miranda-Saavedra D, Mukherjee M, Park G,
Park J, Park S-Y, Proctor RH, Regev A, RuizRoldan MC, Sain D, Sakthikumar S, Sykes S,
Schwartz DC, Turgeon BG, Wapinski I, Yoder O,
Young S, Zeng Q, Zhou S, Galagan J, Cuomo CA,
Kistler HC, Rep M (2010) Comparative genomics
reveals mobile pathogenicity chromosomes in
Fusarium. Nature 464:367–373. https://doi.org/
10.1038/nature08850
Maloney AP, VanEtten HD (1994) A gene from the
fungal plant pathogen Nectria haematococca that
encodes the phytoalexin-detoxifying enzyme pisatin demethylase defines a new cytochrome P450
family. Mol Gen Genet 243:506–514
Martis MM, Klemme S, Banaei-Moghaddam AM, Blattner FR, Macas J, Schmutzer T, Scholz U, Gundlach
H, Wicker T, S ˇ imkova ´ H, Nova ´k P, Neumann P,
Kubala ´kova ´ M, Bauer E, Haseneyer G, Fuchs J,
Dolez ˇel J, Stein N, Mayer KFX, Houben A (2012)
Selfish supernumerary chromosome reveals its
origin as a mosaic of host genome and organellar
sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:13343–
13346. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204237109
Masel AM (1996) Molecular evidence for chromosome
transfer between biotypes of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact
9:339. https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI-9-0339
Masel A, Irwin KG, Manners J (1993) DNA addition
or deletion is associated with a major karyotype
polymorphism in the fungal phytopathogen
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Mol Gen Genet
237(1–2):73–80.
https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF00282786
Mayer KFX, Martis M, Hedley PE, Simkova ´ H, Liu H,
Morris JA, Steuernagel B, Taudien S, Roessner S,
Gundlach H, Kubala ´kova ´ M, Sucha ´nkova ´ P, Murat
F, Felder M, Nussbaumer T, Graner A, Salse J,
Endo T, Sakai H, Tanaka T, Itoh T, Sato K, Platzer
M, Matsumoto T, Scholz U, Dolezel J, Waugh R,
Stein N (2011) Unlocking the barley genome by
chromosomal and comparative genomics. Plant
Cell
23:1249–1263.
https://doi.org/10.1105/
tpc.110.082537
McClintock B (1941) The stability of broken ends of
chromosomes in Zea mays. Genetics 26:234–282
McDonald MC, McGinness L, Hane JK, Williams AH,
Milgate A, Solomon PS (2016) Utilizing gene tree
variation to identify candidate effector genes in
Zymoseptoria tritici. G3 (Bethesda) 6:779–791.
https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.115.025197
Mehrabi R, Bahkali AH, Abd-Elsalam KA, Moslem M,
Ben M’Barek S, Gohari AM, Jashni MK, Stergiopoulos I, Kema GHJ, de Wit PJGM (2011) Horizontal gene and chromosome transfer in plant
pathogenic fungi affecting host range. FEMS
Microbiol Rev 35:542–554. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00263.x
Mehrabi R, Mirzadi Gohari A, Kema GH (2017) Karyotype variability in plant-pathogenic fungi. Annu
Rev Phytopathol 55:483–503. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095928
Mendelson D, Zohary D (1972) Behaviour and transmission of supernumerary chromosomes in Aegilops speltoides. Heredity (Edinb) 29:329–340
Miao V, Covert S, VanEtten H (1991) A fungal gene for
antibiotic resistance on a dispensable (“\B\”) chromosome. Science 254:1773–1776. https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.1763326
Milani NA, Lawrence DP, Arnold AE, Vanetten HD
(2012) Origin of pisatin demethylase (PDA) in
the genus Fusarium. Fungal Genet Biol 49:933–
942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fgb.2012.08.007
Mo ¨ller M, Habig M, Freitag M, Stukenbrock EH (2018)
Extraordinary genome instability and widespread
chromosome rearrangements during vegetative
growth. Genetics 210:517–529. https://doi.org/
10.1534/genetics.118.301050
Mo ¨ller M, Schotanus K, Soyer JL, Haueisen J, Happ K,
Stralucke M, Happel P, Smith KM, Connolly LR,
Freitag M, Stukenbrock EH, Madhani HD (2019)
Destabilization of chromosome structure by histone H3 lysine 27 methylation. PLoS Genet 15:
e1008093.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pgen.1008093
44
M. Habig and E. H. Stukenbrock
(1996) Meiotic behaviour of the minichromosome
in the phytopathogenic ascomycete Leptosphaeria
maculans. Curr Genet 30:541–548
Levin DA, Palestis BG, Jones RN, Trivers R (2005)
Phyletic hot spots for B chromosomes in angiosperms. Evolution 59:962–969
Lievens B, Rep M, Thomma BPHJ (2008) Recent developments in the molecular discrimination of formae speciales of Fusarium oxysporum. Pest Manag
Sci 64:781–788. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1564
Lo Presti L, Lanver D, Schweizer G, Tanaka S, Liang L,
Tollot M, Zuccaro A, Reissmann S, KAHMANN R
(2015) Fungal effectors and plant susceptibility.
Annu Rev Plant Biol 66:513–545. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-arplant-043014-114623
Ma W, Gabriel TS, Martis MM, Gursinsky T, Schubert
V, Vra ´na J, Dolez ˇel J, Grundlach H, Altschmied L,
Scholz U, Himmelbach A, Behrens S-E, BanaeiMoghaddam AM, Houben A (2017) Rye B chromosomes encode a functional Argonaute-like protein
with in vitro slicer activities similar to its a chromosome paralog. New Phytol 213:916–928. https://
doi.org/10.1111/nph.14110
Ma L-J, van der Does HC, Borkovich KA, Coleman JJ,
Daboussi M-J, Di Pietro A, Dufresne M, Freitag M,
Grabherr M, Henrissat B, Houterman PM, Kang S,
Shim W-B, Woloshuk C, Xie X, Xu J-R, Antoniw J,
Baker SE, Bluhm BH, Breakspear A, Brown DW,
Butchko RAE, Chapman S, Coulson R, Coutinho
PM, Danchin EGJ, Diener A, Gale LR, Gardiner
DM, Goff S, Hammond-Kosack KE, Hilburn K,
Hua-Van A, Jonkers W, Kazan K, Kodira CD,
Koehrsen M, Kumar L, Lee Y-H, Li L, Manners
JM, Miranda-Saavedra D, Mukherjee M, Park G,
Park J, Park S-Y, Proctor RH, Regev A, RuizRoldan MC, Sain D, Sakthikumar S, Sykes S,
Schwartz DC, Turgeon BG, Wapinski I, Yoder O,
Young S, Zeng Q, Zhou S, Galagan J, Cuomo CA,
Kistler HC, Rep M (2010) Comparative genomics
reveals mobile pathogenicity chromosomes in
Fusarium. Nature 464:367–373. https://doi.org/
10.1038/nature08850
Maloney AP, VanEtten HD (1994) A gene from the
fungal plant pathogen Nectria haematococca that
encodes the phytoalexin-detoxifying enzyme pisatin demethylase defines a new cytochrome P450
family. Mol Gen Genet 243:506–514
Martis MM, Klemme S, Banaei-Moghaddam AM, Blattner FR, Macas J, Schmutzer T, Scholz U, Gundlach
H, Wicker T, S ˇ imkova ´ H, Nova ´k P, Neumann P,
Kubala ´kova ´ M, Bauer E, Haseneyer G, Fuchs J,
Dolez ˇel J, Stein N, Mayer KFX, Houben A (2012)
Selfish supernumerary chromosome reveals its
origin as a mosaic of host genome and organellar
sequences. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:13343–
13346. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204237109
Masel AM (1996) Molecular evidence for chromosome
transfer between biotypes of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides. Mol Plant-Microbe Interact
9:339. https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI-9-0339
Masel A, Irwin KG, Manners J (1993) DNA addition
or deletion is associated with a major karyotype
polymorphism in the fungal phytopathogen
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Mol Gen Genet
237(1–2):73–80.
https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF00282786
Mayer KFX, Martis M, Hedley PE, Simkova ´ H, Liu H,
Morris JA, Steuernagel B, Taudien S, Roessner S,
Gundlach H, Kubala ´kova ´ M, Sucha ´nkova ´ P, Murat
F, Felder M, Nussbaumer T, Graner A, Salse J,
Endo T, Sakai H, Tanaka T, Itoh T, Sato K, Platzer
M, Matsumoto T, Scholz U, Dolezel J, Waugh R,
Stein N (2011) Unlocking the barley genome by
chromosomal and comparative genomics. Plant
Cell
23:1249–1263.
https://doi.org/10.1105/
tpc.110.082537
McClintock B (1941) The stability of broken ends of
chromosomes in Zea mays. Genetics 26:234–282
McDonald MC, McGinness L, Hane JK, Williams AH,
Milgate A, Solomon PS (2016) Utilizing gene tree
variation to identify candidate effector genes in
Zymoseptoria tritici. G3 (Bethesda) 6:779–791.
https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.115.025197
Mehrabi R, Bahkali AH, Abd-Elsalam KA, Moslem M,
Ben M’Barek S, Gohari AM, Jashni MK, Stergiopoulos I, Kema GHJ, de Wit PJGM (2011) Horizontal gene and chromosome transfer in plant
pathogenic fungi affecting host range. FEMS
Microbiol Rev 35:542–554. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00263.x
Mehrabi R, Mirzadi Gohari A, Kema GH (2017) Karyotype variability in plant-pathogenic fungi. Annu
Rev Phytopathol 55:483–503. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095928
Mendelson D, Zohary D (1972) Behaviour and transmission of supernumerary chromosomes in Aegilops speltoides. Heredity (Edinb) 29:329–340
Miao V, Covert S, VanEtten H (1991) A fungal gene for
antibiotic resistance on a dispensable (“\B\”) chromosome. Science 254:1773–1776. https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.1763326
Milani NA, Lawrence DP, Arnold AE, Vanetten HD
(2012) Origin of pisatin demethylase (PDA) in
the genus Fusarium. Fungal Genet Biol 49:933–
942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fgb.2012.08.007
Mo ¨ller M, Habig M, Freitag M, Stukenbrock EH (2018)
Extraordinary genome instability and widespread
chromosome rearrangements during vegetative
growth. Genetics 210:517–529. https://doi.org/
10.1534/genetics.118.301050
Mo ¨ller M, Schotanus K, Soyer JL, Haueisen J, Happ K,
Stralucke M, Happel P, Smith KM, Connolly LR,
Freitag M, Stukenbrock EH, Madhani HD (2019)
Destabilization of chromosome structure by histone H3 lysine 27 methylation. PLoS Genet 15:
e1008093.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pgen.1008093
44
M. Habig and E. H. Stukenbrock