viii
Contents
7.4 Upgrading during Recovery .......................................................................... 173
7.4.1 Partial Upgrading at the Surface ...................................................... 174
7.4.1.1 Thermal Cracking Processes ............................................ 175
7.4.1.2 Solvent Processes .............................................................. 176
7.4.2 Upgrading during In Situ Recovery ................................................. 176
7.4.2.1 Steam Distillation ............................................................. 177
7.4.2.2 Mild Thermal Cracking .................................................... 177
7.4.2.3 Partial Combustion ........................................................... 178
7.4.2.4 Solvent Deasphalting ........................................................ 180
7.4.2.5 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery ................................... 181
7.4.3 Epilogue............................................................................................ 181
References ................................................................................................................ 182
Section ii composition and Properties
Chapter 8 Chemical Composition ............................................................................................. 187
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 187
8.2 Ultimate (Elemental) Composition................................................................ 188
8.3 Chemical Composition .................................................................................. 189
8.3.1 Hydrocarbon Components ................................................................ 190
8.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbons ...................................................... 191
8.3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes) ...................... 193
8.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons ................................................... 194
8.3.1.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ............................................... 196
8.3.2 Nonhydrocarbon Components .......................................................... 196
8.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds ............................................................ 197
8.3.2.2 Oxygen Compounds ......................................................... 198
8.3.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds ........................................................ 199
8.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents ........................................................ 201
8.3.2.5 Porphyrins .........................................................................202
8.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation .......................................................... 203
8.4.1 Gases and Naphtha ...........................................................................205
8.4.2 Middle Distillates .............................................................................206
8.4.3 Vacuum Residua (1050°F + ) ...............................................................208
References ................................................................................................................208
Chapter 9 Fractional Composition ............................................................................................ 211
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 211
9.2 Distillation ..................................................................................................... 212
9.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................................... 216
9.2.2 Reduced Pressures ............................................................................ 216
9.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation ............................................. 218
9.3 Solvent Treatment .......................................................................................... 219
9.3.1 Asphaltene Separation ...................................................................... 221
9.3.1.1 Influence of Solvent Type ................................................ 221
9.3.1.2 Influence of the Degree of Dilution .................................224
Contents
7.4 Upgrading during Recovery .......................................................................... 173
7.4.1 Partial Upgrading at the Surface ...................................................... 174
7.4.1.1 Thermal Cracking Processes ............................................ 175
7.4.1.2 Solvent Processes .............................................................. 176
7.4.2 Upgrading during In Situ Recovery ................................................. 176
7.4.2.1 Steam Distillation ............................................................. 177
7.4.2.2 Mild Thermal Cracking .................................................... 177
7.4.2.3 Partial Combustion ........................................................... 178
7.4.2.4 Solvent Deasphalting ........................................................ 180
7.4.2.5 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery ................................... 181
7.4.3 Epilogue............................................................................................ 181
References ................................................................................................................ 182
Section ii composition and Properties
Chapter 8 Chemical Composition ............................................................................................. 187
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 187
8.2 Ultimate (Elemental) Composition................................................................ 188
8.3 Chemical Composition .................................................................................. 189
8.3.1 Hydrocarbon Components ................................................................ 190
8.3.1.1 Paraffin Hydrocarbons ...................................................... 191
8.3.1.2 Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes) ...................... 193
8.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons ................................................... 194
8.3.1.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ............................................... 196
8.3.2 Nonhydrocarbon Components .......................................................... 196
8.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds ............................................................ 197
8.3.2.2 Oxygen Compounds ......................................................... 198
8.3.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds ........................................................ 199
8.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents ........................................................ 201
8.3.2.5 Porphyrins .........................................................................202
8.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation .......................................................... 203
8.4.1 Gases and Naphtha ...........................................................................205
8.4.2 Middle Distillates .............................................................................206
8.4.3 Vacuum Residua (1050°F + ) ...............................................................208
References ................................................................................................................208
Chapter 9 Fractional Composition ............................................................................................ 211
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 211
9.2 Distillation ..................................................................................................... 212
9.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................................... 216
9.2.2 Reduced Pressures ............................................................................ 216
9.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation ............................................. 218
9.3 Solvent Treatment .......................................................................................... 219
9.3.1 Asphaltene Separation ...................................................................... 221
9.3.1.1 Influence of Solvent Type ................................................ 221
9.3.1.2 Influence of the Degree of Dilution .................................224