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Contents
Chapter 5 Kerogen ......................................................................................................................99
5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................99
5.2 Properties .........................................................................................................99
5.3 Composition ................................................................................................... 102
5.4 Classification ................................................................................................. 102
5.5 Isolation ......................................................................................................... 104
5.6 Methods for Probing Kerogen Structure ....................................................... 104
5.6.1 Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis ......................................................... 104
5.6.2 Functional Group Analysis............................................................... 105
5.6.3 Oxidation .......................................................................................... 105
5.6.4 Thermal Methods ............................................................................. 106
5.6.5 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrogenolysis ....................................................... 107
5.7 Structural Models .......................................................................................... 107
5.8 Kerogen Maturation ....................................................................................... 109
References ................................................................................................................ 111
Chapter 6 Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation .............................................................. 115
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 115
6.2 Exploration .................................................................................................... 116
6.2.1 Gravity Methods ............................................................................... 117
6.2.2 Magnetic Methods ............................................................................ 118
6.2.3 Seismic Methods .............................................................................. 119
6.2.4 Electrical Methods ........................................................................... 119
6.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods................................................................. 120
6.2.6 Radioactive Methods ........................................................................ 120
6.2.7 Borehole Logging ............................................................................. 120
6.3 Drilling .......................................................................................................... 121
6.3.1 Preparing to Drill ............................................................................. 121
6.3.2 Drilling Equipment .......................................................................... 122
6.3.3 Drilling Rig ...................................................................................... 124
6.3.4 Drilling ............................................................................................. 125
6.4 Well Completion ............................................................................................ 125
6.5 Recovery ........................................................................................................ 126
6.5.1 Primary Recovery ............................................................................ 128
6.5.2 Secondary Recovery......................................................................... 130
6.5.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery ................................................................... 132
6.6 Products and Product Quality ....................................................................... 141
6.7 Transportation ............................................................................................... 142
References ................................................................................................................ 147
Chapter 7 Recovery of Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen ........................................................ 149
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 149
7.2 Mining ........................................................................................................... 153
7.2.1 Tar Sand Mining............................................................................... 154
7.2.2 Hot-Water Process ............................................................................ 156
7.2.3 Other Processes ................................................................................ 158
7.3 Nonmining Methods ...................................................................................... 160
7.3.1 Steam-Based Processes .................................................................... 161
7.3.2 Combustion Processes ...................................................................... 162
7.3.3 Other Processes ................................................................................ 165