204
Engineering Systems Integration
systems of systems (Director of Systems and Software Engineering 2006).
These guides further illustrate the intent of integration of systems into a
system of systems. But the salient issue, the number one concern, for integrating individual systems into a system of systems is that of sharing EMMI
in such a way so as to provide the system with various functionalities and
performances, robustness and resilience, and predictable and acceptable
losses to achieve and participate in the system of systems.
Applying the framework of objective causality to an example of sharing
the functions of “to manage” in a system of systems, consider an incorporated (doing business under the fictitious name of Doctors, Ltd., a legal
entity) of a group of doctors entering into a contract to use the services and
facilities of a local hospital (also incorporated as a legal entity, doing business under the fictitious name of Hospital, Ltd.). Doctors, Ltd. is a system
comprised of all six types of objects—object that interact with EMMI by
send, by receive, by send and receive, by receive and send, as an extension,
and as a source. Each medical professional in Doctors, Ltd. is a person (i.e., a
system). Doctors, Ltd. has an office with equipment, patients with whom
they consult, suppliers who transact business with the doctors (both individually as well as a group). Currently, Doctors, Ltd. uses Hospital, Ltd. services and facilities on an ad hoc basis. Patient records are kept by both
Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. Both send invoices to the patients and often
the patient is billed for duplicate charges, as the exact nature of the activities
is not clearly delineated. The responsibility for billing is muddled. The informal arrangements are not resulting in the desired behaviors and effects.
Both Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. desire to remedy this confusing situation as the patients have complained and some have gone to other doctor
groups having affiliations with other hospitals and have not returned to
either Hospital, Ltd. or Doctors, Ltd. The interactions between Hospital, Ltd.
and Doctors, Ltd. have not resulted in a system of systems with acceptable
performance of their macrofunctions. Losses in goodwill and future revenues are significant and increasing. Indeed, Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd.
are interacting as two systems, but they are not a system of systems. The
metasystem functions of unified billing, governance, and accountability do
not exist. There are no metafunctions. Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. agree
to enter into an agreement to provide metafunctions, improve their macrofunctions, and realign their microfunctions to enable improved interoperability. In addition to resolving billing issues, the Hospital needs to increase
its medical staff of doctors without incurring additional overhead charges.
Doctor, Ltd. agrees to take adjunct positions on the hospital staff. Yet, both
Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. desire to remain somewhat independent,
even while participating in their system of systems. The first step in their
efforts to build metafunctions is to identify the kinds of functions that would
benefit both parties to the agreement as well as the patients. Without presenting the details of the systems engineering aspects in developing a system of
systems, the focus will be on the particulars of integration. Applying the
Engineering Systems Integration
systems of systems (Director of Systems and Software Engineering 2006).
These guides further illustrate the intent of integration of systems into a
system of systems. But the salient issue, the number one concern, for integrating individual systems into a system of systems is that of sharing EMMI
in such a way so as to provide the system with various functionalities and
performances, robustness and resilience, and predictable and acceptable
losses to achieve and participate in the system of systems.
Applying the framework of objective causality to an example of sharing
the functions of “to manage” in a system of systems, consider an incorporated (doing business under the fictitious name of Doctors, Ltd., a legal
entity) of a group of doctors entering into a contract to use the services and
facilities of a local hospital (also incorporated as a legal entity, doing business under the fictitious name of Hospital, Ltd.). Doctors, Ltd. is a system
comprised of all six types of objects—object that interact with EMMI by
send, by receive, by send and receive, by receive and send, as an extension,
and as a source. Each medical professional in Doctors, Ltd. is a person (i.e., a
system). Doctors, Ltd. has an office with equipment, patients with whom
they consult, suppliers who transact business with the doctors (both individually as well as a group). Currently, Doctors, Ltd. uses Hospital, Ltd. services and facilities on an ad hoc basis. Patient records are kept by both
Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. Both send invoices to the patients and often
the patient is billed for duplicate charges, as the exact nature of the activities
is not clearly delineated. The responsibility for billing is muddled. The informal arrangements are not resulting in the desired behaviors and effects.
Both Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. desire to remedy this confusing situation as the patients have complained and some have gone to other doctor
groups having affiliations with other hospitals and have not returned to
either Hospital, Ltd. or Doctors, Ltd. The interactions between Hospital, Ltd.
and Doctors, Ltd. have not resulted in a system of systems with acceptable
performance of their macrofunctions. Losses in goodwill and future revenues are significant and increasing. Indeed, Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd.
are interacting as two systems, but they are not a system of systems. The
metasystem functions of unified billing, governance, and accountability do
not exist. There are no metafunctions. Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. agree
to enter into an agreement to provide metafunctions, improve their macrofunctions, and realign their microfunctions to enable improved interoperability. In addition to resolving billing issues, the Hospital needs to increase
its medical staff of doctors without incurring additional overhead charges.
Doctor, Ltd. agrees to take adjunct positions on the hospital staff. Yet, both
Hospital, Ltd. and Doctors, Ltd. desire to remain somewhat independent,
even while participating in their system of systems. The first step in their
efforts to build metafunctions is to identify the kinds of functions that would
benefit both parties to the agreement as well as the patients. Without presenting the details of the systems engineering aspects in developing a system of
systems, the focus will be on the particulars of integration. Applying the