Systems
203
1995; National Aeronautics and Space Administration 2007), and the INCOSE
handbook (SE Handbook Working Group 2010). The principal difference in
success with various systems engineering approaches appears to depend on
the ability of systems engineers to use systems thinking, know how to adapt
the systems engineering processes to the project, and possess excellent oral
and written communications skills (de Souza 2008). In addition, the systems
engineer must create innovative solutions to mischievous problems, exercise
sound engineering judgment, and apply effective management and leadership
skills.
At the heart of systems thinking and systems integration is the set of issues
that are deemed important to include in research (Ferris et al. 2003). The
framework for systems integration reflects the engineering domain specialties, and the disciplines of sociology and management.
Systems integration is the unification of the objects and their interactions
of energy, matter, material wealth, and information to provide systemlevel functionalities and performances.
System of Systems and Integration
The general type of engineered and a systems-engineered system is one in
which people are involved in the system’s use during operations and sustainment. People are systems in themselves. People exhibit individual and
group object emergent properties, having boundaries and boundary conditions, and are integrated into a metastable state that has a lifecycle. The
occurrence of people’s behaviors in conjunction with that of the engineered
system is often referred to the system. If what is built as a product or service
is a system, then that artifactual object when combined with the human
system(s) becomes a system of systems (Ackoff 1971; Osmundson et al. 2007;
Lane and Boehm 2008). The casual nature of building a system of systems is
similar to that of building a system if and only if the goal of the system of
systems is thought of as an all-encompassing system. In other words, even
though each individual object (system) is completely bounded and integrated
and exhibits system emergent properties and attributes, the system of systems needs to be thought of as a system with antecedent parts (each of which
are systems). Each part needs to be viewed as a part of a larger system (i.e., a
system of systems) and not as individual systems with some connectivity
and interactions with EMMI. The United States Department of Defense
Acquisition Guidebook (United States Department of Defense 2010) defines a
system of systems as a “set or arrangement of systems that results from independent systems integrated into a larger system that delivers unique capabilities.” Similarly, the U.S. Department of Defense has adopted a guide for
203
1995; National Aeronautics and Space Administration 2007), and the INCOSE
handbook (SE Handbook Working Group 2010). The principal difference in
success with various systems engineering approaches appears to depend on
the ability of systems engineers to use systems thinking, know how to adapt
the systems engineering processes to the project, and possess excellent oral
and written communications skills (de Souza 2008). In addition, the systems
engineer must create innovative solutions to mischievous problems, exercise
sound engineering judgment, and apply effective management and leadership
skills.
At the heart of systems thinking and systems integration is the set of issues
that are deemed important to include in research (Ferris et al. 2003). The
framework for systems integration reflects the engineering domain specialties, and the disciplines of sociology and management.
Systems integration is the unification of the objects and their interactions
of energy, matter, material wealth, and information to provide systemlevel functionalities and performances.
System of Systems and Integration
The general type of engineered and a systems-engineered system is one in
which people are involved in the system’s use during operations and sustainment. People are systems in themselves. People exhibit individual and
group object emergent properties, having boundaries and boundary conditions, and are integrated into a metastable state that has a lifecycle. The
occurrence of people’s behaviors in conjunction with that of the engineered
system is often referred to the system. If what is built as a product or service
is a system, then that artifactual object when combined with the human
system(s) becomes a system of systems (Ackoff 1971; Osmundson et al. 2007;
Lane and Boehm 2008). The casual nature of building a system of systems is
similar to that of building a system if and only if the goal of the system of
systems is thought of as an all-encompassing system. In other words, even
though each individual object (system) is completely bounded and integrated
and exhibits system emergent properties and attributes, the system of systems needs to be thought of as a system with antecedent parts (each of which
are systems). Each part needs to be viewed as a part of a larger system (i.e., a
system of systems) and not as individual systems with some connectivity
and interactions with EMMI. The United States Department of Defense
Acquisition Guidebook (United States Department of Defense 2010) defines a
system of systems as a “set or arrangement of systems that results from independent systems integrated into a larger system that delivers unique capabilities.” Similarly, the U.S. Department of Defense has adopted a guide for