46
2 The Use of Paradigms and Theories in the PULSE 3 …
Table 2.1
(continued)
Epistemology
Defined as the truths we
seek and believe, as
researchers
The thinking process and
the relationship between
what we know and what
we see (Lincoln et al.
2018)
Theories of knowledge
or how one gains a
knowledge of issues,
phenomena, and reality
(Reus-Smit 2013)
An epistemology asks
what the relationship
between the researcher
and the researched is
(Creswell 2007; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Dualist/objectivist with
findings that are true
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
Objective reality exists
beyond the human mind
(Weber 2004)
Modified dualist/objectivist, with a
critical tradition and community with
findings probably true (Lincoln et al.
2018)
We can only approximate nature.
Research and statistics give incomplete
data (Guba and Lincoln 2005, Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Transactional/subjectivist with
value-mediated findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
An actor’s reference frame to
the setting in which it is located
construct social reality (Guba
and Lincoln 1985)
A person’s lived experience
constitutes a knowledge of the
world (Weber 2004). Meaning
is based on our interactions
with our environment (Guba
and Lincoln 1985; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Research findings are the
creation of the process of
interaction between the inquirer
and the inquired into (Guba
1990; Lincoln et al. 2011)
Transactional/subjectivist with
value-mediated findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The drivers of research are the
study of social structures,
freedom and oppression, as
well as control and power. The
knowledge we produce can
change existing structures and
get rid of oppression through
emancipation (Merriam 1991,
Cox and Sinclair 1996; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Characterised by a critical
subjectivity in participatory
transactions with the cosmos. An
extended epistemology exists,
categorised by experimental,
propositional, and practical
knowing with co-created findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018). Critical
subjectivity exists and is
dependent on the transaction with
reality. There is an extended
epistemology consisting of
experiential, propositional, as
well as practical means of
knowing. These facets
co-constitute research findings
(Heron and Reason 1997; Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
Research objects
Described as the
relationship between the
researcher and the
objects
The research object has
inherent qualities that exist
independently of the
researcher (Weber 2004)
Minimum interaction with the research
objects. Distance between researcher and
object to get objectivity (Guba and
Lincoln 2005, Lincoln et al. 2011)
The researcher’s lived
experience interprets the
research object (Weber 2004)
Through its research methods
there is adequate dialogue
between the research subjects
and objects to collaboratively
construct a meaningful reality
(Angen 2000)
Research objects such as
structures, freedom and
oppression and control and
power inform the researcher’s
research agenda (Merriam
1991; Cox 1996; Lincoln et al.
2011). There is a distance
between the researcher and the
object, but only in terms of a
physical separation. Other than
that, the researcher could be
imbedded in the research
object (Meissner 2017)
There is a participatory
transaction between the
researcher and the object (Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
(continued)
2 The Use of Paradigms and Theories in the PULSE 3 …
Table 2.1
(continued)
Epistemology
Defined as the truths we
seek and believe, as
researchers
The thinking process and
the relationship between
what we know and what
we see (Lincoln et al.
2018)
Theories of knowledge
or how one gains a
knowledge of issues,
phenomena, and reality
(Reus-Smit 2013)
An epistemology asks
what the relationship
between the researcher
and the researched is
(Creswell 2007; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Dualist/objectivist with
findings that are true
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
Objective reality exists
beyond the human mind
(Weber 2004)
Modified dualist/objectivist, with a
critical tradition and community with
findings probably true (Lincoln et al.
2018)
We can only approximate nature.
Research and statistics give incomplete
data (Guba and Lincoln 2005, Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Transactional/subjectivist with
value-mediated findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
An actor’s reference frame to
the setting in which it is located
construct social reality (Guba
and Lincoln 1985)
A person’s lived experience
constitutes a knowledge of the
world (Weber 2004). Meaning
is based on our interactions
with our environment (Guba
and Lincoln 1985; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Research findings are the
creation of the process of
interaction between the inquirer
and the inquired into (Guba
1990; Lincoln et al. 2011)
Transactional/subjectivist with
value-mediated findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The drivers of research are the
study of social structures,
freedom and oppression, as
well as control and power. The
knowledge we produce can
change existing structures and
get rid of oppression through
emancipation (Merriam 1991,
Cox and Sinclair 1996; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Characterised by a critical
subjectivity in participatory
transactions with the cosmos. An
extended epistemology exists,
categorised by experimental,
propositional, and practical
knowing with co-created findings
(Lincoln et al. 2018). Critical
subjectivity exists and is
dependent on the transaction with
reality. There is an extended
epistemology consisting of
experiential, propositional, as
well as practical means of
knowing. These facets
co-constitute research findings
(Heron and Reason 1997; Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
Research objects
Described as the
relationship between the
researcher and the
objects
The research object has
inherent qualities that exist
independently of the
researcher (Weber 2004)
Minimum interaction with the research
objects. Distance between researcher and
object to get objectivity (Guba and
Lincoln 2005, Lincoln et al. 2011)
The researcher’s lived
experience interprets the
research object (Weber 2004)
Through its research methods
there is adequate dialogue
between the research subjects
and objects to collaboratively
construct a meaningful reality
(Angen 2000)
Research objects such as
structures, freedom and
oppression and control and
power inform the researcher’s
research agenda (Merriam
1991; Cox 1996; Lincoln et al.
2011). There is a distance
between the researcher and the
object, but only in terms of a
physical separation. Other than
that, the researcher could be
imbedded in the research
object (Meissner 2017)
There is a participatory
transaction between the
researcher and the object (Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
(continued)