2.4 Pulse 3
45
Table 2.1
Paradigm assessment index
Meta-theoretical
Assumptions About
Paradigm
Positivism
Realists or the so-called
‘hard science’ researchers
Postpositivism
An altered form of positivism
Interpretivism/
Constructivism
This type of researcher attains
an understanding of subjects by
interpreting the subject’s
perception
Critical Theories
These researchers create
change to benefit those
oppressed by power, like
feminists
Participatory
These researchers try to achieve
transformation, based on
democratic participation between
the research and the subject
Knowledge generation
Ontology
Defined as ‘[t]he
worldviews and
assumptions in which
researchers operate in
their search for new
knowledge’ (Schwandt
2007: 190 cited in
Lincoln et al. 2018)
Theories are about the
nature of being or what
we can say exists, how to
categorise things, and
how things relate to one
another (Reus-Smit
2013)
An ontology asks what
the nature of reality is
(Creswell 2007; Lincoln
et al. 2011). Simply put,
an ontology is our way
of understanding reality
Raw realism. A ‘real’
reality exists, but it is one
that is apprehensible
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The researcher and reality
are separate (Wendt 1999;
Weber 2004)
There is only one
identifiable reality.
Research is there to control
and predict nature (Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Critical realism. A ‘real’ reality exists, but
it is only imperfectly and probabilistically
apprehensible (Lincoln et al. 2018)
A single reality (Weber 2004), which we
can never fully understand. We will never
fully understand the nature of the reality
or how to attain a full understanding. This
is because there are hidden variables and
a shortage of absolutes (Guba and
Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al. 2011)
Relativism. Local and specific
constructed and co-constructed
realities define relativism
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The researcher and reality are
inseparable (lifeworld) (Weber
2004). Realities are mental
constructs. They are social and
experienced based, local,
specific, constructed and
co-constructed. The realities
also depend on the form and
content of the person holding
such realities (Guba and
Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
There are multiple realities
which are dependent on the
individual (Guba 1996; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Historical realism claims that
social, political, cultural, ethnic
and gender values that has
crystallised over time shape a
virtual reality (Lincoln et al.
2018)
There is a constant power
struggle as human nature
operates in this world.
Interactions between
individuals and groups are in
the form of privilege and
oppression. These interactions
are based on ethnicity, race,
socio-economic class, gender,
mental or physical abilities, as
well as sexual preference
(Bernal 2002; Giroux 1982;
Kilgore 2001; Lincoln et al.
2011)
A participative reality endures,
that is characterised by the human
mind and a given cosmos or
surrounding landscape
co-creating a subjective-objective
reality (Guba and Lincoln 2005;
Lincoln et al. 2011, 2018)
There is also a freedom from
objectivity emanating from a new
understanding of the relationship
between the researcher and others
(Heshusius 1994; Lincoln et al.
2011)
A subjective-objective reality
exists. ‘Knowers can only be
knowers when known by other
knowers’. Participation and
participative realities form the
foundations of the paradigm
(Heron and Reason 1997; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
(continued)
45
Table 2.1
Paradigm assessment index
Meta-theoretical
Assumptions About
Paradigm
Positivism
Realists or the so-called
‘hard science’ researchers
Postpositivism
An altered form of positivism
Interpretivism/
Constructivism
This type of researcher attains
an understanding of subjects by
interpreting the subject’s
perception
Critical Theories
These researchers create
change to benefit those
oppressed by power, like
feminists
Participatory
These researchers try to achieve
transformation, based on
democratic participation between
the research and the subject
Knowledge generation
Ontology
Defined as ‘[t]he
worldviews and
assumptions in which
researchers operate in
their search for new
knowledge’ (Schwandt
2007: 190 cited in
Lincoln et al. 2018)
Theories are about the
nature of being or what
we can say exists, how to
categorise things, and
how things relate to one
another (Reus-Smit
2013)
An ontology asks what
the nature of reality is
(Creswell 2007; Lincoln
et al. 2011). Simply put,
an ontology is our way
of understanding reality
Raw realism. A ‘real’
reality exists, but it is one
that is apprehensible
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The researcher and reality
are separate (Wendt 1999;
Weber 2004)
There is only one
identifiable reality.
Research is there to control
and predict nature (Guba
and Lincoln 2005; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Critical realism. A ‘real’ reality exists, but
it is only imperfectly and probabilistically
apprehensible (Lincoln et al. 2018)
A single reality (Weber 2004), which we
can never fully understand. We will never
fully understand the nature of the reality
or how to attain a full understanding. This
is because there are hidden variables and
a shortage of absolutes (Guba and
Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al. 2011)
Relativism. Local and specific
constructed and co-constructed
realities define relativism
(Lincoln et al. 2018)
The researcher and reality are
inseparable (lifeworld) (Weber
2004). Realities are mental
constructs. They are social and
experienced based, local,
specific, constructed and
co-constructed. The realities
also depend on the form and
content of the person holding
such realities (Guba and
Lincoln 2005; Lincoln et al.
2011)
There are multiple realities
which are dependent on the
individual (Guba 1996; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
Historical realism claims that
social, political, cultural, ethnic
and gender values that has
crystallised over time shape a
virtual reality (Lincoln et al.
2018)
There is a constant power
struggle as human nature
operates in this world.
Interactions between
individuals and groups are in
the form of privilege and
oppression. These interactions
are based on ethnicity, race,
socio-economic class, gender,
mental or physical abilities, as
well as sexual preference
(Bernal 2002; Giroux 1982;
Kilgore 2001; Lincoln et al.
2011)
A participative reality endures,
that is characterised by the human
mind and a given cosmos or
surrounding landscape
co-creating a subjective-objective
reality (Guba and Lincoln 2005;
Lincoln et al. 2011, 2018)
There is also a freedom from
objectivity emanating from a new
understanding of the relationship
between the researcher and others
(Heshusius 1994; Lincoln et al.
2011)
A subjective-objective reality
exists. ‘Knowers can only be
knowers when known by other
knowers’. Participation and
participative realities form the
foundations of the paradigm
(Heron and Reason 1997; Lincoln
et al. 2011)
(continued)