20. Kuhn-Spearing L, Rey C, Kim HM, Glimcher MJ (1996) Carbonated apatite nanocrystals of
bone. In: Bourell DL (ed) Synthesis and processing of nanocrystalline powder. The Minerals,
Metals and Materials Society, Warrendale, PA
21. Rho JY, Kuhn-Spearing L, Zioupos P (1998) Mechanical properties and the hierarchical
structure of bone. Med Eng Phys 20:92–102
22. Smith R (2004) Bone health and osteoporosis: a report of the surgeon general. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General,
Rockville, MD, pp 68–70
23. Cowin SC, van Buskirk WC, Ashman RB (1987) In: Skalak R, Chien S (eds) Handbook of
bioengineering. McGraw-Hill, New York
24. Liu H, Webster TJ (2007) Bioinspired nanocomposites for orthopedic applications. In:
Webster TJ (ed) Nanotechnology for the regeneration of hard and soft tissues. World
Scientific, Singapore, pp 1–52
25. Guyton AC (1991) Textbook of medical physiology. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp 868–881
26. Marin BR, Burr DB (1989) Structure function and adaptation of compact bone. Raven, New
York, pp 106–107
27. Trippel SB (1998) Potential role of insulin like growth factors in fracture healing. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 355S:S301–S313
28. Damien CJ, Parsons JR (1991) Bone graft and bone graft substitutes: a review of current
technology and applications. J Appl Biomater 2:187–208
29. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S (2004) Nanostructured biomaterials. In: Nalwa HS (ed) Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nanotechnology, vol 7. American Scientific, California,
pp 595–613
30. Welch RD, Zhang H, Bronson DG (2003) Experimental tibial plateau fractures augmented
with calcium phosphate cement or autologous bone graft. J Bone Joint Surg Am 85:222–231
31. Myerson MS, Neufeld SK, Uribe J (2005) Fresh-frozen structural allografts in the foot and
ankle. J Bone Joint Surg Am 87:113–120
32. Li XD, Hu YY (2001) The treatment of osteomyelitis with gentamicinreconstituted bone
xenograft-composite. J Bone Joint Surg Br 83:1063–1068
33. Cypher TJ, Grossman JP (1996) Biological principles of bone graft healing. J Foot Ankle
Surg 35:413–417
34. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S (2007) Nanoengineered biomimetic bone-building blocks. Top
Appl Phys 109:301–352
35. Salgado AJ, Coutinho OP, Reis RL (2004) Bone tissue engineering: state of the art and future
trends. Macromol Biosci 4(8):743–765
36. Gazdag AR, Lane JM, Glaser D, Forster RA (1995) Alternatives to autogenous bone graft:
efficacy and indications. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 3:1–8
37. Asahina I, Sato I, Oda M, Marukawa E, Imranul AM, Enomoto S (1999) In: Bone engineering, 1st edn. Em Squared, Toronto, p 526
38. Lexer E (1908) Substitution of whole or half joints freshly amputated extremities by free
plastic operation. Surg Gynecol Obstet 6:601–607
39. Mankin HJ, Gebhardt MC (1996) Long-term results of allograft replacement in the management of bone tumours. Clin Orthop Relat Res 324:86–97
40. Simonds RJ, Holmberg SD, Hurwitz RZ (1992) Transmission of human immunodeficiency
virus type 1 from a seronegative organ and tissue donor. N Engl J Med 326:726–732
41. Salama R (1983) Xenogeneic bone grafting in humans. Clin Orthop Relat Res 174:113–121
42. Salama R (1973) Recombined grafts of bone and marrow. J Bone Joint Surg Br 55:402–417
43. Mears DC (1977) Metals in medicine and surgery. Int Metals Rev 218:119–155
44. De Boer HH (1988) The history of bone grafts. Clin Orthop 226:292–298
45. Perry CR (1999) Bone repair techniques, bone graft, and bone graft substitutes. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 360:71–86
46. Bohner M (2000) Calcium orthophosphates in medicine: from ceramics to calcium phosphate
cements. Injury 31:SD37–SD47
162
A. Bhowmick et al.
bone. In: Bourell DL (ed) Synthesis and processing of nanocrystalline powder. The Minerals,
Metals and Materials Society, Warrendale, PA
21. Rho JY, Kuhn-Spearing L, Zioupos P (1998) Mechanical properties and the hierarchical
structure of bone. Med Eng Phys 20:92–102
22. Smith R (2004) Bone health and osteoporosis: a report of the surgeon general. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General,
Rockville, MD, pp 68–70
23. Cowin SC, van Buskirk WC, Ashman RB (1987) In: Skalak R, Chien S (eds) Handbook of
bioengineering. McGraw-Hill, New York
24. Liu H, Webster TJ (2007) Bioinspired nanocomposites for orthopedic applications. In:
Webster TJ (ed) Nanotechnology for the regeneration of hard and soft tissues. World
Scientific, Singapore, pp 1–52
25. Guyton AC (1991) Textbook of medical physiology. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp 868–881
26. Marin BR, Burr DB (1989) Structure function and adaptation of compact bone. Raven, New
York, pp 106–107
27. Trippel SB (1998) Potential role of insulin like growth factors in fracture healing. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 355S:S301–S313
28. Damien CJ, Parsons JR (1991) Bone graft and bone graft substitutes: a review of current
technology and applications. J Appl Biomater 2:187–208
29. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S (2004) Nanostructured biomaterials. In: Nalwa HS (ed) Encyclopedia of nanoscience and nanotechnology, vol 7. American Scientific, California,
pp 595–613
30. Welch RD, Zhang H, Bronson DG (2003) Experimental tibial plateau fractures augmented
with calcium phosphate cement or autologous bone graft. J Bone Joint Surg Am 85:222–231
31. Myerson MS, Neufeld SK, Uribe J (2005) Fresh-frozen structural allografts in the foot and
ankle. J Bone Joint Surg Am 87:113–120
32. Li XD, Hu YY (2001) The treatment of osteomyelitis with gentamicinreconstituted bone
xenograft-composite. J Bone Joint Surg Br 83:1063–1068
33. Cypher TJ, Grossman JP (1996) Biological principles of bone graft healing. J Foot Ankle
Surg 35:413–417
34. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S (2007) Nanoengineered biomimetic bone-building blocks. Top
Appl Phys 109:301–352
35. Salgado AJ, Coutinho OP, Reis RL (2004) Bone tissue engineering: state of the art and future
trends. Macromol Biosci 4(8):743–765
36. Gazdag AR, Lane JM, Glaser D, Forster RA (1995) Alternatives to autogenous bone graft:
efficacy and indications. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 3:1–8
37. Asahina I, Sato I, Oda M, Marukawa E, Imranul AM, Enomoto S (1999) In: Bone engineering, 1st edn. Em Squared, Toronto, p 526
38. Lexer E (1908) Substitution of whole or half joints freshly amputated extremities by free
plastic operation. Surg Gynecol Obstet 6:601–607
39. Mankin HJ, Gebhardt MC (1996) Long-term results of allograft replacement in the management of bone tumours. Clin Orthop Relat Res 324:86–97
40. Simonds RJ, Holmberg SD, Hurwitz RZ (1992) Transmission of human immunodeficiency
virus type 1 from a seronegative organ and tissue donor. N Engl J Med 326:726–732
41. Salama R (1983) Xenogeneic bone grafting in humans. Clin Orthop Relat Res 174:113–121
42. Salama R (1973) Recombined grafts of bone and marrow. J Bone Joint Surg Br 55:402–417
43. Mears DC (1977) Metals in medicine and surgery. Int Metals Rev 218:119–155
44. De Boer HH (1988) The history of bone grafts. Clin Orthop 226:292–298
45. Perry CR (1999) Bone repair techniques, bone graft, and bone graft substitutes. Clin Orthop
Relat Res 360:71–86
46. Bohner M (2000) Calcium orthophosphates in medicine: from ceramics to calcium phosphate
cements. Injury 31:SD37–SD47
162
A. Bhowmick et al.