78. Van de Velde K, Kiekens P (2004) Structure analysis and degree of substitution of chitin,
chitosan and dibutyrylchitin by FT-IR spectroscopy and solid state 13C NMR. Carbohydr
Polym 58:409–416
79. Muzzarelli RAA, Rocchetti R (1985) Determination of the degree of acetylation of chitosans
by first derivative ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Carbohydr Polym 6:61–72
80. Wu T, Zivanovic S (2008) Determination of the degree of acetylation (DA) of chitin and
chitosan by an improved first derivative UV method. Carbohydr Polym 73:248–253
81. Duarte ML, Ferreira MC, Marvao MR et al (2001) Determination of the degree of acetylation
of chitin materials by 13C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy and solid state 13C NMR spectroscopy. Int J Biol Macromol 28:359–363
82. Varum KM, Antohonsen MW, Grasdalen H et al (1991) Determination of the degree of
N-acetylation and the distribution of N-acetyl groups in partially N-deacetylated chitins
(chitosans) by high-field n.m.r. spectroscopy. Carbohydr Res 211:17–23
83. Raymond L, Morin FG, Marchessault RH (1993) Degree of deacetylation of chitosan using
conductometric titration and solid-state NMR. Carbohydr Res 246:331–336
84. Jiang X, Chen L, Zhong W (2003) A new linear potentiometric titration method for the
determination of deacetylation degree of chitosan. Carbohydr Polym 54:457–463
85. Guinesi L, Cavalheiro E (2006) The use of DSC curves to determine the acetylation degree of
chitin/chitosan samples. Termochim Acta 444:128–133
86. Rinaudo M, Milas M, Le Dung P (1993) Characterization of chitosan: Influence of ionic
strength and degree of acetylation on chain expansion. Int J Biol Macromol 15:281–285
87. Brugnerotto J, Desbrieres J, Roberts G et al (2001) Characterization of chitosan by steric
exclusion chromatography. Polymer 42:09921–09927
88. Terbojevich M, Cosani A (1997) Molecular weight determination of chitin and chitosan. In:
Muzzarelli RAA, Peter MG (eds) Chitin handbook. European Chitin Society, Grotammare,
pp 87–101
89. Yen M, Yang J, Mau J (2009) physicochemical characterization of chitin and chitosan from
crab shells. Carbohydr Polym 75:15–21
90. ASTM Standard F2103-01 (2001) Standard guide for characterization and testing of chitosan
salts as starting materials intended for use in biomedical and tissue-engineered medical
product applications. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
91. Bradford M (1976) A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities
of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Ann Biochem 72:248–254
92. Shigemasa Y, Saito K, Sashiwa H et al (1994) Enzymatic degradation of chitins and partially
deacetylated chitins. Int J Biol Macromol 16:43–49
93. Ben AC (2011) Chitin and chitosan: Marine biopolymers with unique properties and versatile
applications. Global J Biotech Biochem 6:149–153
94. Khoushab F, Montarop Y (2010) Chitin research revisited. Mar Drugs 8:1988–2012
95. Chen JK, Shen CR, Liu CL (2010) N-acetylglucosamine: production and applications. Mar
Drugs 8:2493–2516
96. Kumirska J, Czerwicka M, Kaczyn ´ski Z et al (2010) Applications of spectroscopic methods
for structural analysis of chitin and chitosan. Mar Drugs 8:1567–1636
97. Tolaimate A, Desbrieres J, Rhazi M et al (2003) Contribution to the preparation of chitins and
chitosans with controlled physicochemical properties. Polymer 44:7939–7952
98. Campana-Filho SP, De Britto D, Curti E et al (2007) Extraction, structures and properties of
α- and β-chitin. Quim Nova 30:644–650
99. Kurita K, Ishii S, Tomita K et al (1994) Reactivity characteristics of squid β-chitin as
compared with those of shrimp chitin: high potentials of squid chitin as starting material
for facile chemical modifications. J Polym Sci Part Polym Chem 32:1027–1032
100. Sannan T, Kurita K, Iwakura Y (1976) Studies on chitin 2. Effect of deacetylation on
solubility. Makromol Chem 177:3589–3600
101. Noishiki Y, Takami H, Nishiyama Y et al (2003) Alkali-induced conversion of β-chitin to
α-chitin. Biomacromolecules 4:896–899
Engineering of Polysaccharides via Nanotechnology
127
chitosan and dibutyrylchitin by FT-IR spectroscopy and solid state 13C NMR. Carbohydr
Polym 58:409–416
79. Muzzarelli RAA, Rocchetti R (1985) Determination of the degree of acetylation of chitosans
by first derivative ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Carbohydr Polym 6:61–72
80. Wu T, Zivanovic S (2008) Determination of the degree of acetylation (DA) of chitin and
chitosan by an improved first derivative UV method. Carbohydr Polym 73:248–253
81. Duarte ML, Ferreira MC, Marvao MR et al (2001) Determination of the degree of acetylation
of chitin materials by 13C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy and solid state 13C NMR spectroscopy. Int J Biol Macromol 28:359–363
82. Varum KM, Antohonsen MW, Grasdalen H et al (1991) Determination of the degree of
N-acetylation and the distribution of N-acetyl groups in partially N-deacetylated chitins
(chitosans) by high-field n.m.r. spectroscopy. Carbohydr Res 211:17–23
83. Raymond L, Morin FG, Marchessault RH (1993) Degree of deacetylation of chitosan using
conductometric titration and solid-state NMR. Carbohydr Res 246:331–336
84. Jiang X, Chen L, Zhong W (2003) A new linear potentiometric titration method for the
determination of deacetylation degree of chitosan. Carbohydr Polym 54:457–463
85. Guinesi L, Cavalheiro E (2006) The use of DSC curves to determine the acetylation degree of
chitin/chitosan samples. Termochim Acta 444:128–133
86. Rinaudo M, Milas M, Le Dung P (1993) Characterization of chitosan: Influence of ionic
strength and degree of acetylation on chain expansion. Int J Biol Macromol 15:281–285
87. Brugnerotto J, Desbrieres J, Roberts G et al (2001) Characterization of chitosan by steric
exclusion chromatography. Polymer 42:09921–09927
88. Terbojevich M, Cosani A (1997) Molecular weight determination of chitin and chitosan. In:
Muzzarelli RAA, Peter MG (eds) Chitin handbook. European Chitin Society, Grotammare,
pp 87–101
89. Yen M, Yang J, Mau J (2009) physicochemical characterization of chitin and chitosan from
crab shells. Carbohydr Polym 75:15–21
90. ASTM Standard F2103-01 (2001) Standard guide for characterization and testing of chitosan
salts as starting materials intended for use in biomedical and tissue-engineered medical
product applications. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
91. Bradford M (1976) A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities
of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Ann Biochem 72:248–254
92. Shigemasa Y, Saito K, Sashiwa H et al (1994) Enzymatic degradation of chitins and partially
deacetylated chitins. Int J Biol Macromol 16:43–49
93. Ben AC (2011) Chitin and chitosan: Marine biopolymers with unique properties and versatile
applications. Global J Biotech Biochem 6:149–153
94. Khoushab F, Montarop Y (2010) Chitin research revisited. Mar Drugs 8:1988–2012
95. Chen JK, Shen CR, Liu CL (2010) N-acetylglucosamine: production and applications. Mar
Drugs 8:2493–2516
96. Kumirska J, Czerwicka M, Kaczyn ´ski Z et al (2010) Applications of spectroscopic methods
for structural analysis of chitin and chitosan. Mar Drugs 8:1567–1636
97. Tolaimate A, Desbrieres J, Rhazi M et al (2003) Contribution to the preparation of chitins and
chitosans with controlled physicochemical properties. Polymer 44:7939–7952
98. Campana-Filho SP, De Britto D, Curti E et al (2007) Extraction, structures and properties of
α- and β-chitin. Quim Nova 30:644–650
99. Kurita K, Ishii S, Tomita K et al (1994) Reactivity characteristics of squid β-chitin as
compared with those of shrimp chitin: high potentials of squid chitin as starting material
for facile chemical modifications. J Polym Sci Part Polym Chem 32:1027–1032
100. Sannan T, Kurita K, Iwakura Y (1976) Studies on chitin 2. Effect of deacetylation on
solubility. Makromol Chem 177:3589–3600
101. Noishiki Y, Takami H, Nishiyama Y et al (2003) Alkali-induced conversion of β-chitin to
α-chitin. Biomacromolecules 4:896–899
Engineering of Polysaccharides via Nanotechnology
127