Moving ahead, there are certainly challenges facing the use of PVA-C in
biomedical applications, but the future looks promising.
Acknowledgments This work was supported in part by grants from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the
Canadian Foundation for Innovation.
References
1. Peppas NA (1996) Hydrogels. In: Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Shoen FJ, Lemons JE (eds)
Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine, 1st edn. Academic, Toronto,
ON, Elsevier Academic Press pp 60–64
2. Ratner BD, Hoffman AS (1976) Synthetic hydrogels for biomedical applications. In: Andrade
JD (ed) Hydrogels for medical and related applications, vol 31, ACS symposium series.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 1–36
3. Tadavarthy S, Moller J, Amplatz K (1975) Polyvinyl-alcohol (ivalon)—new embolic material. Am J Roentgenol 125:609–616
4. Bray JC, Merrill EW (1973) Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels for synthetic articular cartilage
material. J Biomed Mater Res 7:431–443
5. Peppas N, Benner R (1980) Proposed method of intracordal injection and gelation of poly
(vinyl alcohol) solution in vocal cords—polymer considerations. Biomaterials 1:158–162
6. Hassan C, Peppas N (2000) Structure and applications of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels
produced by conventional crosslinking or by freezing/thawing methods. Adv Polym Sci
153:37–65
7. Wan W, Campbell G, Zhang Z, Hui A, Boughner D (2002) Optimizing the tensile properties
of polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel for the construction of a bioprosthetic heart valve stent. J
Biomed Mater Res 63:854–861
8. Yokoyama F, Masada I, Shimamura K, Ikawa T, Monobe K (1986) Morphology and structure
of highly elastic poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel prepared by repeated freezing-and-melting.
Colloid Polym Sci 264:595–601
9. Willcox PJ, Howie DW, SchmidtRohr K, Hoagland DA, Gido SP, Pudjijanto S, Kleiner LW,
Venkatraman S (1999) Microstructure of poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogels produced by freeze/
thaw cycling. J Polym Sci Polym Phys 37:3438–3454
10. Millon LE, Nieh M, Hutter JL, Wan W (2007) SANS characterization of an anisotropic poly
(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel with vascular applications. Macromolecules 40:3655–3662
11. Hudson SD, Hutter JL, Nieh M, Pencer J, Millon LE, Wan W (2009) Characterization of
anisotropic poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel by small- and ultra-small-angle neutron scattering. J
Chem Phys 130:034903
12. Kanaya T, Ohkura M, Kaji K, Furusaka M, Misawa M (1994) Structure of poly(vinyl alcohol)
gels studied by wide-angle and small-angle neutron-scattering. Macromolecules
27:5609–5615
13. Lozinsky V (2002) Cryogels on the basis of natural and synthetic polymers: preparation,
properties and application. Usp Khim 71:559–585
14. Holloway JL, Lowman AM, Palmese GR (2013) The role of crystallization and phase
separation in the formation of physically cross-linked PVA hydrogels. Soft Matter 9:826–833
15. Kanaya T, Ohkura M, Takeshita H, Kaji K, Furusaka M, Yamaoka H, Wignall G (1995)
Gelation process of poly(vinyl alcohol) as studied by small-angle neutron and lightscattering. Macromolecules 28:3168–3174
16. Ficek BJ, Peppas NA (1993) Novel preparation of poly(vinyl alcohol) microparticles without
cross-linking agent for controlled drug-delivery of proteins. J Control Release 27:259–264
316
W. Wan et al.
biomedical applications, but the future looks promising.
Acknowledgments This work was supported in part by grants from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the
Canadian Foundation for Innovation.
References
1. Peppas NA (1996) Hydrogels. In: Ratner BD, Hoffman AS, Shoen FJ, Lemons JE (eds)
Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine, 1st edn. Academic, Toronto,
ON, Elsevier Academic Press pp 60–64
2. Ratner BD, Hoffman AS (1976) Synthetic hydrogels for biomedical applications. In: Andrade
JD (ed) Hydrogels for medical and related applications, vol 31, ACS symposium series.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 1–36
3. Tadavarthy S, Moller J, Amplatz K (1975) Polyvinyl-alcohol (ivalon)—new embolic material. Am J Roentgenol 125:609–616
4. Bray JC, Merrill EW (1973) Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels for synthetic articular cartilage
material. J Biomed Mater Res 7:431–443
5. Peppas N, Benner R (1980) Proposed method of intracordal injection and gelation of poly
(vinyl alcohol) solution in vocal cords—polymer considerations. Biomaterials 1:158–162
6. Hassan C, Peppas N (2000) Structure and applications of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels
produced by conventional crosslinking or by freezing/thawing methods. Adv Polym Sci
153:37–65
7. Wan W, Campbell G, Zhang Z, Hui A, Boughner D (2002) Optimizing the tensile properties
of polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel for the construction of a bioprosthetic heart valve stent. J
Biomed Mater Res 63:854–861
8. Yokoyama F, Masada I, Shimamura K, Ikawa T, Monobe K (1986) Morphology and structure
of highly elastic poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogel prepared by repeated freezing-and-melting.
Colloid Polym Sci 264:595–601
9. Willcox PJ, Howie DW, SchmidtRohr K, Hoagland DA, Gido SP, Pudjijanto S, Kleiner LW,
Venkatraman S (1999) Microstructure of poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogels produced by freeze/
thaw cycling. J Polym Sci Polym Phys 37:3438–3454
10. Millon LE, Nieh M, Hutter JL, Wan W (2007) SANS characterization of an anisotropic poly
(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel with vascular applications. Macromolecules 40:3655–3662
11. Hudson SD, Hutter JL, Nieh M, Pencer J, Millon LE, Wan W (2009) Characterization of
anisotropic poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel by small- and ultra-small-angle neutron scattering. J
Chem Phys 130:034903
12. Kanaya T, Ohkura M, Kaji K, Furusaka M, Misawa M (1994) Structure of poly(vinyl alcohol)
gels studied by wide-angle and small-angle neutron-scattering. Macromolecules
27:5609–5615
13. Lozinsky V (2002) Cryogels on the basis of natural and synthetic polymers: preparation,
properties and application. Usp Khim 71:559–585
14. Holloway JL, Lowman AM, Palmese GR (2013) The role of crystallization and phase
separation in the formation of physically cross-linked PVA hydrogels. Soft Matter 9:826–833
15. Kanaya T, Ohkura M, Takeshita H, Kaji K, Furusaka M, Yamaoka H, Wignall G (1995)
Gelation process of poly(vinyl alcohol) as studied by small-angle neutron and lightscattering. Macromolecules 28:3168–3174
16. Ficek BJ, Peppas NA (1993) Novel preparation of poly(vinyl alcohol) microparticles without
cross-linking agent for controlled drug-delivery of proteins. J Control Release 27:259–264
316
W. Wan et al.