3.4.1 Adverse Health Effects of Gossypol
During ruminal fermentation, gossypol gets converted into the bound form, leading
to its reduced toxicity. Therefore, susceptibility to gossypol poisoning is more in
monogastric animals (with single-chambered stomach) such as pigs, rodents, birds,
and fish compared to ruminants (Kenar 2006; Alexander et al. 2008; Randel et al.
1992; Zhang et al. 2007). However, few workers have also reported its poisoning in
ruminants such as sheep and goats (Morgan et al. 1988; East et al. 1994).
Gossypol forms a complex with iron, leading to inhibition in iron absorption and
finally erythrocyte fragility and erythropoiesis (Randel et al. 1996; Lindsey et al.
1980; Zhang et al. 2007; Mena et al. 2004). Several studies have also reported
decreased concentration of T4 and T3 hormones in blood of experimental rats fed
with gossypol thereby indicating adverse effect on thyroid metabolism
(El-Mokadem et al. 2012; Tang and Wong 1984; Rikihisa and Lin 1989; Lin et al.
1990; Udoh et al. 1992). Similarly, hepatotoxic effects of gossypol intake have also
been observed in experimental rats, characterized by vacuolation in mitochondria,
enlarged endoplasmic reticulum, proliferation of collagen fiber, and expanded
perinuclear space in morphology of liver cells (Kakani et al. 2010; Blevins et al.
2010; El-Sharaky et al. 2010; Haschek et al. 1989; Gadelha et al. 2014; Manabe et al.
1991). Adverse effects of gossypol on male fertility through inhibiting spermatogenesis, decreasing sperm counts, specific mitochondrial injuries to the sperm tail
cells, damage to germinal epithelium, low sperm volume, interference with the
system of utilization of ATP by sperm cells, calcium influx inhibition, reduction in
Mg-ATPase and Ca-Mg-ATPase activity in plasmid membranes of spermatozoa,
and reducing sperm motility have also been reported and discussed by several
workers (Randel et al. 1992; El-Sharaky et al. 2010; Chenoweth et al. 1994; Gu
and Anderson 1985; Fornes et al. 1993; Chongthammakun et al. 1986; Yuan and Shi
2000). Gossypol consumption has also been linked with poor immunocompetence of
organisms (Braga et al. 2012). Its immunosuppressive behavior is characterized by
reduction in levels of leukocytes and lymphocytes, apoptosis induction, decreased
CD4
+ thymocyte population, and increased CD8
+ lymphocyte population (Xu et al.
2009; Quintana et al. 2000).
3.5 Bioactive Components
Cottonseed meal (CSM) is one of the most important by-products of oil industry and
is used as a protein supplement in animal feed, for biodiesel production, and as a
fertilizer. CSM also contains some bioactive components such as lignin, cellulose,
amino acids, proteins, and some polyphenolic and flavonoid components. This
bioactivity of these components is due to presence of some functional groups such
as carboxyl groups, methyl groups, hydroxyl groups, and fixed ionic moieties (both
anionic and cationic). These groups are responsible for therapeutic effects such as
3 Cottonseed (Gossypium hirsutum)
7 9
During ruminal fermentation, gossypol gets converted into the bound form, leading
to its reduced toxicity. Therefore, susceptibility to gossypol poisoning is more in
monogastric animals (with single-chambered stomach) such as pigs, rodents, birds,
and fish compared to ruminants (Kenar 2006; Alexander et al. 2008; Randel et al.
1992; Zhang et al. 2007). However, few workers have also reported its poisoning in
ruminants such as sheep and goats (Morgan et al. 1988; East et al. 1994).
Gossypol forms a complex with iron, leading to inhibition in iron absorption and
finally erythrocyte fragility and erythropoiesis (Randel et al. 1996; Lindsey et al.
1980; Zhang et al. 2007; Mena et al. 2004). Several studies have also reported
decreased concentration of T4 and T3 hormones in blood of experimental rats fed
with gossypol thereby indicating adverse effect on thyroid metabolism
(El-Mokadem et al. 2012; Tang and Wong 1984; Rikihisa and Lin 1989; Lin et al.
1990; Udoh et al. 1992). Similarly, hepatotoxic effects of gossypol intake have also
been observed in experimental rats, characterized by vacuolation in mitochondria,
enlarged endoplasmic reticulum, proliferation of collagen fiber, and expanded
perinuclear space in morphology of liver cells (Kakani et al. 2010; Blevins et al.
2010; El-Sharaky et al. 2010; Haschek et al. 1989; Gadelha et al. 2014; Manabe et al.
1991). Adverse effects of gossypol on male fertility through inhibiting spermatogenesis, decreasing sperm counts, specific mitochondrial injuries to the sperm tail
cells, damage to germinal epithelium, low sperm volume, interference with the
system of utilization of ATP by sperm cells, calcium influx inhibition, reduction in
Mg-ATPase and Ca-Mg-ATPase activity in plasmid membranes of spermatozoa,
and reducing sperm motility have also been reported and discussed by several
workers (Randel et al. 1992; El-Sharaky et al. 2010; Chenoweth et al. 1994; Gu
and Anderson 1985; Fornes et al. 1993; Chongthammakun et al. 1986; Yuan and Shi
2000). Gossypol consumption has also been linked with poor immunocompetence of
organisms (Braga et al. 2012). Its immunosuppressive behavior is characterized by
reduction in levels of leukocytes and lymphocytes, apoptosis induction, decreased
CD4
+ thymocyte population, and increased CD8
+ lymphocyte population (Xu et al.
2009; Quintana et al. 2000).
3.5 Bioactive Components
Cottonseed meal (CSM) is one of the most important by-products of oil industry and
is used as a protein supplement in animal feed, for biodiesel production, and as a
fertilizer. CSM also contains some bioactive components such as lignin, cellulose,
amino acids, proteins, and some polyphenolic and flavonoid components. This
bioactivity of these components is due to presence of some functional groups such
as carboxyl groups, methyl groups, hydroxyl groups, and fixed ionic moieties (both
anionic and cationic). These groups are responsible for therapeutic effects such as
3 Cottonseed (Gossypium hirsutum)
7 9