330 L. BOSCÁN ET AL.
electricity and heat sector” is a tangible reality in Denmark, the simultaneous increase in fossil fuel consumption and emissions in transportation
has blunted the overall decrease. Between 1990 and 2017, CO 2 emissions from electricity and heat generation decreased by 65% and 43,
respectively, while on the other hand transport-related emissions grew.
Transportation is now the single largest emitter of the Danish energy
economy. It accounted for 40% of all CO 2 emissions and 24% of all GHG
emissions by the ends of 2017 and 2016, respectively (Danish Energy
Agency 2018c, d). In comparison, the entire conversion sector (which
includes electricity generation and district heating) was responsible for
a lower share of CO 2 emissions (32%) than transportation. Similarly,
the share of GHG emissions from transportation (24%) was (slightly)
exceeded only by primary energy production and conversion together
(25%), followed by agriculture (19%) (see Fig. 13.4). If Denmark is
serious about its energy transition and its goal of a fossil-free transportation system in 2050, it must establish clearer targets and ambitions and
better incorporate road transportation, which accounts for three-quarters
of all fuel consumption in transportation (Danish Energy Agency 2018c,
d).
Fortunately, Denmark departs from an already advantageous position,
as it implements several ambitious policies with regard to transportation.
For example, in accordance with EU level regulations, it applies CO 2
labeling and standards for new vehicles and has explicit targets such as the
reduction of the GHG emission intensity of vehicles by 6% in 2020. At
a national level, there are several other policies and investment programs.
The country boasts a highly developed public transportation network;
continued expansion and innovation are priorities. Railway operations
are in the process of becoming fully electrified. The construction of the
City Ring within the Copenhagen Metro system and other light railway
systems in major Danish cities like Aarhus and Odense are well underway.
The adoption of energy efficiency measures in public transportation and
the fuel conversion of some bus networks in major cities are also important examples (International Energy Agency 2017). Denmark also has a
strong cycling culture, with an average 1.6 kilometers cycling distance
per citizen per day and a nationally well-developed cycling infrastructure
(Cycling Embassy of Denmark, n.d.). Additionally, the taxation system—
which consists of a vehicle registration tax and a green owner’s tax (i.e.,
a fuel consumption tax)—is complex and evolving, but overall encourages the purchase and utilization of fuel-efficient vehicles. This includes
electricity and heat sector” is a tangible reality in Denmark, the simultaneous increase in fossil fuel consumption and emissions in transportation
has blunted the overall decrease. Between 1990 and 2017, CO 2 emissions from electricity and heat generation decreased by 65% and 43,
respectively, while on the other hand transport-related emissions grew.
Transportation is now the single largest emitter of the Danish energy
economy. It accounted for 40% of all CO 2 emissions and 24% of all GHG
emissions by the ends of 2017 and 2016, respectively (Danish Energy
Agency 2018c, d). In comparison, the entire conversion sector (which
includes electricity generation and district heating) was responsible for
a lower share of CO 2 emissions (32%) than transportation. Similarly,
the share of GHG emissions from transportation (24%) was (slightly)
exceeded only by primary energy production and conversion together
(25%), followed by agriculture (19%) (see Fig. 13.4). If Denmark is
serious about its energy transition and its goal of a fossil-free transportation system in 2050, it must establish clearer targets and ambitions and
better incorporate road transportation, which accounts for three-quarters
of all fuel consumption in transportation (Danish Energy Agency 2018c,
d).
Fortunately, Denmark departs from an already advantageous position,
as it implements several ambitious policies with regard to transportation.
For example, in accordance with EU level regulations, it applies CO 2
labeling and standards for new vehicles and has explicit targets such as the
reduction of the GHG emission intensity of vehicles by 6% in 2020. At
a national level, there are several other policies and investment programs.
The country boasts a highly developed public transportation network;
continued expansion and innovation are priorities. Railway operations
are in the process of becoming fully electrified. The construction of the
City Ring within the Copenhagen Metro system and other light railway
systems in major Danish cities like Aarhus and Odense are well underway.
The adoption of energy efficiency measures in public transportation and
the fuel conversion of some bus networks in major cities are also important examples (International Energy Agency 2017). Denmark also has a
strong cycling culture, with an average 1.6 kilometers cycling distance
per citizen per day and a nationally well-developed cycling infrastructure
(Cycling Embassy of Denmark, n.d.). Additionally, the taxation system—
which consists of a vehicle registration tax and a green owner’s tax (i.e.,
a fuel consumption tax)—is complex and evolving, but overall encourages the purchase and utilization of fuel-efficient vehicles. This includes