170
A. Puranik et al.
1 Background
More than one billion people worldwide are deprived of basic facilities including
clean water sources and sanitation [1]. Most places in India are characterized by overcrowding, inadequate water supply, and inadequate facilities of disposal of human
excreta, wastewater, and solid wastes [2]. Individual and domestic hygiene practices
can be improved if water supply, wastewater disposal, and waste management are
proper [2]. Poor sanitation not only has a direct influence on well-being but also has
an indirect impact on the living conditions, reduced education outcomes, and poverty
[3].
Drinking water is a key source of microbial pathogens, and poor sanitation is
integral to enteric pathogen exposure [4]. Poor water quality, sanitation, and hygiene
account for more than 1.6 million deaths a year worldwide mainly due to diarrhea.
Nine out of 10 such deaths are in children, and virtually all of the deaths are in
developing countries [5]. Mode of water transportation, the existence of excess water
in the street, domestic water storage conditions, feces disposal, and the presence of
vectors predispose the children to several gastrointestinal infections [6, 7]. Diarrhea,
a gastrointestinal infection is caused by pathogenic microorganisms including E.
coli, Rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter, and Shigella present in
water [8, 9].
About 2.4 billion people lack access to a proper sanitation facility, and four out
of five of these underprivileged people lived in Asia alone [3, 10]. The millennium
development goal (MDG) to halve the proportion of people without access to water
and basic sanitation by 2015 [3] remains unmet. Over 2600 million of the 2015
population gained access to an improved water source during the MDG period.
However, more than 660 million people across the globe and one-fifth of them in
South Asia still use an unimproved source of drinking water [11]. Despite working
hard to achieve the MDG goal, low baseline and high population density country like
India has almost 163 million people with no access to clean water [11]. To respond
to these public health concerns, urban India needs to have universal access to water
and toilets with safe collection and treatment of human excreta [12].
India has set its way to achieve the sustainable development goal of clean water and
sanitation by 2030 making the review of current status more important [13, 14]. India
has a highly heterogeneous structure making spatial analysis an integral technique.
Generating evidence through spatial analysis will help target the locations requiring
attention. Spatial statistics are fundamental in mapping the condition of interest, [1,
15–18] to identify the hot spots/cold spots and provide the information on significant
clusters of locations [18]. The spatial assessment will enable civil engineers for
strategic planning to improve the present situation of water and sanitation facilities.
To the best of our knowledge, the spatial-temporal presentation of water and
sanitation facilities in India at a gap of eight years has not been previously presented.
In the present study, the spatiotemporal mappings of regions affected by the poor
sanitation and water supply are reported for instituting the understanding of the
A. Puranik et al.
1 Background
More than one billion people worldwide are deprived of basic facilities including
clean water sources and sanitation [1]. Most places in India are characterized by overcrowding, inadequate water supply, and inadequate facilities of disposal of human
excreta, wastewater, and solid wastes [2]. Individual and domestic hygiene practices
can be improved if water supply, wastewater disposal, and waste management are
proper [2]. Poor sanitation not only has a direct influence on well-being but also has
an indirect impact on the living conditions, reduced education outcomes, and poverty
[3].
Drinking water is a key source of microbial pathogens, and poor sanitation is
integral to enteric pathogen exposure [4]. Poor water quality, sanitation, and hygiene
account for more than 1.6 million deaths a year worldwide mainly due to diarrhea.
Nine out of 10 such deaths are in children, and virtually all of the deaths are in
developing countries [5]. Mode of water transportation, the existence of excess water
in the street, domestic water storage conditions, feces disposal, and the presence of
vectors predispose the children to several gastrointestinal infections [6, 7]. Diarrhea,
a gastrointestinal infection is caused by pathogenic microorganisms including E.
coli, Rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter, and Shigella present in
water [8, 9].
About 2.4 billion people lack access to a proper sanitation facility, and four out
of five of these underprivileged people lived in Asia alone [3, 10]. The millennium
development goal (MDG) to halve the proportion of people without access to water
and basic sanitation by 2015 [3] remains unmet. Over 2600 million of the 2015
population gained access to an improved water source during the MDG period.
However, more than 660 million people across the globe and one-fifth of them in
South Asia still use an unimproved source of drinking water [11]. Despite working
hard to achieve the MDG goal, low baseline and high population density country like
India has almost 163 million people with no access to clean water [11]. To respond
to these public health concerns, urban India needs to have universal access to water
and toilets with safe collection and treatment of human excreta [12].
India has set its way to achieve the sustainable development goal of clean water and
sanitation by 2030 making the review of current status more important [13, 14]. India
has a highly heterogeneous structure making spatial analysis an integral technique.
Generating evidence through spatial analysis will help target the locations requiring
attention. Spatial statistics are fundamental in mapping the condition of interest, [1,
15–18] to identify the hot spots/cold spots and provide the information on significant
clusters of locations [18]. The spatial assessment will enable civil engineers for
strategic planning to improve the present situation of water and sanitation facilities.
To the best of our knowledge, the spatial-temporal presentation of water and
sanitation facilities in India at a gap of eight years has not been previously presented.
In the present study, the spatiotemporal mappings of regions affected by the poor
sanitation and water supply are reported for instituting the understanding of the