104
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) [118]. The engineered strain produced
29 mg L
−1
of ST at a glucose yield of 1.44 mg g
−1
.
In another approach, Xian et al. have examined four PAL isoenzymes, Arabidopsis
thaliana (AtPAL2), Fagopyrum tataricum (FtPAL), Petroselinum crispum (PcPAL),
and Artemisia annua (AaPAL), to produce ST in E. coli [119]. AtPAL2 has shown
optimum enzyme activity among the investigated isoenzymes. When isopropyl
myristate was used as a solvent shake flask fermentation medium, the ST concentration reached 350 mg L
−1
after 48 h. Techno-economic assessment of bio-based ST
production from glucose by engineered Escherichia coli was performed by Claypool
et al. [120]. According to the assumption of this analysis, a 45 Gg per annum biobased ST plant is projected to yield 99.9% pure ST monomer at a MESP of 1.90 $
kg
−1
. The analysis concluded that the selling price of bio-based ST is competitive to
petroleum-derived ST.
The most direct route to bio-based ST via bio-catalytic decarboxylation of transcinnamic acid was first reported in 1995 by Middelhoven et al. [121]. In this report,
the culture of the yeast Cryptococcus elinovii was grown on cinnamic acid to produce ST. However smaller amount of ST (13 mg) was yielded due to the toxicity of
ST. The decarboxylation of cinnamic acid and derivatives was also performed over
plant cell cultures [122]. Among different plant cell cultures, the cells of Camellia
sinensis produced 30% ST at room temperature. In 2013, a new study showed that
forest waste is a very useful sustainable platform for manufacturing bio-based ST
[123]. In this study the fungal strain was cultivated on various lignocellulosic biomass such as fresh leaves, wood, bark of Scots pine, Norway spruce, and Silver
Birch. Authors achieved maximum production rates of 52.5 lg h
−1
, 41 lg h
−1
, and 27
lg h
−1
ST from the mature bark of oak and potato dextrose broth, respectively.
Lian et al. utilized red oak-derived pyrolytic sugars for the production of ST
[124]. A maximum of 240 mg L
−1
ST was obtained from levoglucosan. In another
study, ST was produced from glucose, cellobiose, and xylo-oligosaccharides using
a co-culture system of phenylalanine ammonia lyase and phenylacrylic acid decarboxylase expressing in Streptomyces lividans strain. The co-cultures of S. lividans/
p-encP and S. lividans/FDC1 produced a maximum of 30 mg L
−1
ST after 7 days of
cultivation from glucose [125].
6 Concluding Remarks
Rapid consumption of petroleum products coupled with environmental concerns
necessitated the replacement of non-renewable carbons with renewable alternatives
such as biomass for transportation fuels and chemicals. The described vinyl monomers are important compounds, which have application in food, pharmaceuticals,
polymers, and fine chemicals. The chapter has covered the recent advancements in
the production of IA, AA, MAA, and ST monomers. Several filamentous and nonfilamentous fungi, bacteria, and yeasts have been used as bio-catalysts with great
potential. Despite significant scientific advancements and technological know-how,
K. Avasthi et al.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) [118]. The engineered strain produced
29 mg L
−1
of ST at a glucose yield of 1.44 mg g
−1
.
In another approach, Xian et al. have examined four PAL isoenzymes, Arabidopsis
thaliana (AtPAL2), Fagopyrum tataricum (FtPAL), Petroselinum crispum (PcPAL),
and Artemisia annua (AaPAL), to produce ST in E. coli [119]. AtPAL2 has shown
optimum enzyme activity among the investigated isoenzymes. When isopropyl
myristate was used as a solvent shake flask fermentation medium, the ST concentration reached 350 mg L
−1
after 48 h. Techno-economic assessment of bio-based ST
production from glucose by engineered Escherichia coli was performed by Claypool
et al. [120]. According to the assumption of this analysis, a 45 Gg per annum biobased ST plant is projected to yield 99.9% pure ST monomer at a MESP of 1.90 $
kg
−1
. The analysis concluded that the selling price of bio-based ST is competitive to
petroleum-derived ST.
The most direct route to bio-based ST via bio-catalytic decarboxylation of transcinnamic acid was first reported in 1995 by Middelhoven et al. [121]. In this report,
the culture of the yeast Cryptococcus elinovii was grown on cinnamic acid to produce ST. However smaller amount of ST (13 mg) was yielded due to the toxicity of
ST. The decarboxylation of cinnamic acid and derivatives was also performed over
plant cell cultures [122]. Among different plant cell cultures, the cells of Camellia
sinensis produced 30% ST at room temperature. In 2013, a new study showed that
forest waste is a very useful sustainable platform for manufacturing bio-based ST
[123]. In this study the fungal strain was cultivated on various lignocellulosic biomass such as fresh leaves, wood, bark of Scots pine, Norway spruce, and Silver
Birch. Authors achieved maximum production rates of 52.5 lg h
−1
, 41 lg h
−1
, and 27
lg h
−1
ST from the mature bark of oak and potato dextrose broth, respectively.
Lian et al. utilized red oak-derived pyrolytic sugars for the production of ST
[124]. A maximum of 240 mg L
−1
ST was obtained from levoglucosan. In another
study, ST was produced from glucose, cellobiose, and xylo-oligosaccharides using
a co-culture system of phenylalanine ammonia lyase and phenylacrylic acid decarboxylase expressing in Streptomyces lividans strain. The co-cultures of S. lividans/
p-encP and S. lividans/FDC1 produced a maximum of 30 mg L
−1
ST after 7 days of
cultivation from glucose [125].
6 Concluding Remarks
Rapid consumption of petroleum products coupled with environmental concerns
necessitated the replacement of non-renewable carbons with renewable alternatives
such as biomass for transportation fuels and chemicals. The described vinyl monomers are important compounds, which have application in food, pharmaceuticals,
polymers, and fine chemicals. The chapter has covered the recent advancements in
the production of IA, AA, MAA, and ST monomers. Several filamentous and nonfilamentous fungi, bacteria, and yeasts have been used as bio-catalysts with great
potential. Despite significant scientific advancements and technological know-how,
K. Avasthi et al.