232
Pante and Kann 2002; John et al. 2003). The roadmap of passing particles through
the intestinal wall and reaching to a biological fluid has been included multiple
unforeseen challenges because tight junctions pore size are 0.3–1.0 nm (des Rieux
et al. 2006).
Several studies have addressed the various biological toxicity of engineered
nanomaterials, which clearly have shown their ability to initiate irreversible biochemical functions, such as oxidative stress, release toxic ions, mitochondrial perturbation, metabolomic and proteomic changes, which ultimately connected to
other complications like altering cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, DNA damage, and
inflammatory status (Chen et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2012; Li et al. 2018; Xie et al.
2018; Lindeque et al. 2018; Møller et al. 2017). Literature analysis revealed that
induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is behind the most pathophysiologic
basis of the nanoparticle tissue damage (Fig. 9.2) (Donaldson et al. 2009).
Application of man-made nanomaterials in various Hi-Tech agri-food industries is
growing due to the popularity of these tiny materials. There is a serious alarm
regarding the day-to-day increment of worldwide human exposure through the different pathways, especially the food chain (Kaluza et al. 2009).
9.2 Naturally Occurring Nanomaterials in Food
The natural processes that produce nanoparticles can be photochemical reactions,
forest fires, volcanic eruptions, simple erosions, and even by plants and animals
(Buzea et al. 2007). Naturally, through the food chain, all foods including plants and
animals that have been used for centuries include nanomaterials (Magnuson et al.
2011). Natural organic molecules in foods such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
have different sizes from large polymers to simple nanoscale molecules (Magnuson
et al. 2011; Raynes et al. 2014; Sun et al. 2014; Bouhallab et al. 2017). The main
components of milk with dimensions of about 0.5–300 nm, such as casein micelles,
whey proteins, and lactose, are natural nanomaterials (Magnuson et al. 2011; Sun
et al. 2014). The casein micelle, as one of the abundant proteins in milk, measures
between 100 and 200 nm (Bouhallab et al. 2017). Milk fat globules, β-lactoglobulin,
α-lactalbumin, ovalbumin, lysozyme, ovotransferrin, avidin, as well as myofibrillar
proteins are among the natural nano-sized organic compounds in milk, meat, and
egg (Bouhalla et al. 2017; Morris 2010; Peters et al. 2016; Brownlow et al. 1997;
Majorek et al. 2012). In food nanotechnology, many of these natural nano-sized
molecules play important roles in the functional and nutritional properties of foods
(Rogers 2016; Sekhon 2010).
H. Ebrahimnejad et al.
Pante and Kann 2002; John et al. 2003). The roadmap of passing particles through
the intestinal wall and reaching to a biological fluid has been included multiple
unforeseen challenges because tight junctions pore size are 0.3–1.0 nm (des Rieux
et al. 2006).
Several studies have addressed the various biological toxicity of engineered
nanomaterials, which clearly have shown their ability to initiate irreversible biochemical functions, such as oxidative stress, release toxic ions, mitochondrial perturbation, metabolomic and proteomic changes, which ultimately connected to
other complications like altering cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, DNA damage, and
inflammatory status (Chen et al. 2007; Peters et al. 2012; Li et al. 2018; Xie et al.
2018; Lindeque et al. 2018; Møller et al. 2017). Literature analysis revealed that
induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is behind the most pathophysiologic
basis of the nanoparticle tissue damage (Fig. 9.2) (Donaldson et al. 2009).
Application of man-made nanomaterials in various Hi-Tech agri-food industries is
growing due to the popularity of these tiny materials. There is a serious alarm
regarding the day-to-day increment of worldwide human exposure through the different pathways, especially the food chain (Kaluza et al. 2009).
9.2 Naturally Occurring Nanomaterials in Food
The natural processes that produce nanoparticles can be photochemical reactions,
forest fires, volcanic eruptions, simple erosions, and even by plants and animals
(Buzea et al. 2007). Naturally, through the food chain, all foods including plants and
animals that have been used for centuries include nanomaterials (Magnuson et al.
2011). Natural organic molecules in foods such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
have different sizes from large polymers to simple nanoscale molecules (Magnuson
et al. 2011; Raynes et al. 2014; Sun et al. 2014; Bouhallab et al. 2017). The main
components of milk with dimensions of about 0.5–300 nm, such as casein micelles,
whey proteins, and lactose, are natural nanomaterials (Magnuson et al. 2011; Sun
et al. 2014). The casein micelle, as one of the abundant proteins in milk, measures
between 100 and 200 nm (Bouhallab et al. 2017). Milk fat globules, β-lactoglobulin,
α-lactalbumin, ovalbumin, lysozyme, ovotransferrin, avidin, as well as myofibrillar
proteins are among the natural nano-sized organic compounds in milk, meat, and
egg (Bouhalla et al. 2017; Morris 2010; Peters et al. 2016; Brownlow et al. 1997;
Majorek et al. 2012). In food nanotechnology, many of these natural nano-sized
molecules play important roles in the functional and nutritional properties of foods
(Rogers 2016; Sekhon 2010).
H. Ebrahimnejad et al.