606
M. Huda et al.
40.1 Introduction
In order to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by increasing the efficiency of
fossil-fuel-based power generation systems, as well as installing renewable-energybased power systems, a concept called as smart grid has been introduced (Dallinger
et al. 2013; Tokimatsu et al. 2018). One of the challenges that a smart grid needs
to tackle down is the unpredictable power supply and demand. One of the causes
of uncertain power supply is the nature of the renewable energy generation systems
(e.g., wind-mills and solar photovoltaic systems). On the other hand, one of the causes
of uncertain power demand is the penetration of EVs (Zhang et al. 2017; Juangsa
et al. 2017). Electricity as a good has special characteristic that is non-storable at
least in large quantities, and at an economic cost even if there is battery and hydro
storages that is still being developed and expensive (Mitani et al. 2017).
Nowadays, there is a high interest on electric vehicles (EVs), especially in the
developed countries, due to their beneficial characteristic including high energy efficiency, minimum maintenance frequency, and environmentally friendly (Li et al.
2016). City car is still common use for commuting in urban area, meaning that it
is almost parked during the day. Very large demand of electricity is predicted when
EVs are charged at the same time, causing an imbalance in power system (Dubarry
et al. 2017). However, in case that both charging and discharging of EVs can be
controlled and scheduled, EVs are potential in supporting the grid as distributed
energy resources and storage devices (Huda et al. 2018). Therefore, the scheduling
and control of both charging and discharging are very urgent to be developed. This
developed smart system with mobile energy storage is called as vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
or vehicle grid integration system.
40.1.1 EV as Distributed Energy Resources (DERs)
New technologies bring exciting growth in many industries that make a continuous
change in way of energy use and its business (Hall and Roelich 2016). These changes
can affect a delicate balance of energy supply and demand (Taibi and Fernández
2017). As today, grid struggles to meet the increasing demand for electrical energy
problems and faces a risk of decreased productivity and revenue (Jenniches 2018).
Power generation, which is scattered around the country, is delivered to the enduser through complex transmission and distribution systems, also known as the grid.
These power generation facilities produce electricity using coal, gas, nuclear and,
recently, renewable sources like wind and solar (Nunes and Brito 2017). However,
the alternative generation to meet the energy demand which is affordable, reliable
and clean is using the distributed energy resources (DERs) (Zhang et al. 2017).
DERs can help the energy use to be more efficient by generating on-site and storing
it for use during peak operating times (Aziz et al. 2015). Distributed energy includes
vast array of small-scale energy technologies owned by consumers, such as rooftop
M. Huda et al.
40.1 Introduction
In order to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by increasing the efficiency of
fossil-fuel-based power generation systems, as well as installing renewable-energybased power systems, a concept called as smart grid has been introduced (Dallinger
et al. 2013; Tokimatsu et al. 2018). One of the challenges that a smart grid needs
to tackle down is the unpredictable power supply and demand. One of the causes
of uncertain power supply is the nature of the renewable energy generation systems
(e.g., wind-mills and solar photovoltaic systems). On the other hand, one of the causes
of uncertain power demand is the penetration of EVs (Zhang et al. 2017; Juangsa
et al. 2017). Electricity as a good has special characteristic that is non-storable at
least in large quantities, and at an economic cost even if there is battery and hydro
storages that is still being developed and expensive (Mitani et al. 2017).
Nowadays, there is a high interest on electric vehicles (EVs), especially in the
developed countries, due to their beneficial characteristic including high energy efficiency, minimum maintenance frequency, and environmentally friendly (Li et al.
2016). City car is still common use for commuting in urban area, meaning that it
is almost parked during the day. Very large demand of electricity is predicted when
EVs are charged at the same time, causing an imbalance in power system (Dubarry
et al. 2017). However, in case that both charging and discharging of EVs can be
controlled and scheduled, EVs are potential in supporting the grid as distributed
energy resources and storage devices (Huda et al. 2018). Therefore, the scheduling
and control of both charging and discharging are very urgent to be developed. This
developed smart system with mobile energy storage is called as vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
or vehicle grid integration system.
40.1.1 EV as Distributed Energy Resources (DERs)
New technologies bring exciting growth in many industries that make a continuous
change in way of energy use and its business (Hall and Roelich 2016). These changes
can affect a delicate balance of energy supply and demand (Taibi and Fernández
2017). As today, grid struggles to meet the increasing demand for electrical energy
problems and faces a risk of decreased productivity and revenue (Jenniches 2018).
Power generation, which is scattered around the country, is delivered to the enduser through complex transmission and distribution systems, also known as the grid.
These power generation facilities produce electricity using coal, gas, nuclear and,
recently, renewable sources like wind and solar (Nunes and Brito 2017). However,
the alternative generation to meet the energy demand which is affordable, reliable
and clean is using the distributed energy resources (DERs) (Zhang et al. 2017).
DERs can help the energy use to be more efficient by generating on-site and storing
it for use during peak operating times (Aziz et al. 2015). Distributed energy includes
vast array of small-scale energy technologies owned by consumers, such as rooftop