INTRODUCTION
3
he recognized the existence of nanostructures in biological systems. Many of
Feynman’s speculations have become reality. However, his thinking did not resonate
with scientists at the time. Perhaps because of his reputation for wit, the reaction of
many in the audience could best be described by the title of his later book Surely
You i-e Joking, A4r Feynman. Of course, the lecture is now legendary among presentday nanotechnology researchers, but as one scientist has commented, “it was so
visionary that it did not connect with people until the technology caught up with it.”
There were other visionaries. Ralph Landauer, a theoretical physicist working for
IBM in 1957, had ideas on nanoscale electronics and realized the importance that
quantum-mechanical effects would play in such devices.
Although Feynman presented his visionary lecture in 1960, there was experimental activity in the 1950s and 1960s on small metal particles. It was not called
nanotechnology at that time, and there was not much of it. Uhlir reported the first
observation of porous silicon in 1956, but it was not until 1990 when roomtemperature fluorescence was observed in this material that interest grew. The
properties of porous silicon are discussed in Chapter 6. Other work in this era
involved making alkali metal nanoparticles by vaporizing sodium or potassium metal
and then condensing them on cooler materials called substrates. Magnetic fluids
called ferrofluids were developed in the 1960s. They consist of nanosized magnetic
particles dispersed in liquids. The particles were made by ballmilling in the presence
of a surface-active agent (surfactant) and liquid carrier. They have a number of
interesting properties and applications, which are discussed in Chapter 7. Another
area of activity in the 1960s involved electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) of
conduction electrons in metal particles of nanodimensions referred to as colloids in
those days. The particles were produced by thermal decomposition and irradiation of
solids having positive metal ions, and negative molecular ions such as sodium and
potassium azide. In fact, decomposing these kinds of solids by heat is one way to
make nanometal particles, and we discuss this subject in Chapter 4. Structural
features of metal nanoparticles such as the existence of magic numbers were revealed
in the 1970s using mass spectroscopic studies of sodium metal beams. Herman
and co-workers measured the ionization potential of sodium clusters in 1978 and
observed that it depended on the size of the cluster, which led to the development of
the jellium model of clusters discussed in Chapter 4.
Groups at Bell Laboratories and IBM fabricated the first two-dimensional
quantum wells in the early 1970s. They were made by thin-film (epitaxial) growth
techniques that build a semiconductor layer one atom at a time. The work was the
beginning of the development of the zero-dimensional quantum dot, which is now
one of the more mature nanotechnologies with commercial applications. The
quantum dot and its applications are discussed in Chapter 9.
However, it was not until the 1980s with the emergence of appropriate methods of
fabrication of nanostructures that a notable increase in research activity occurred,
and a number of significant developments resulted. In 1981, a method was developed to make metal clusters using a high-powered focused laser to vaporize
metals into a hot plasma. This is discussed in Chapter 4. A gust of helium cools the
vapor, condensing the metal atoms into clusters of various sizes. In 1985, this
3
he recognized the existence of nanostructures in biological systems. Many of
Feynman’s speculations have become reality. However, his thinking did not resonate
with scientists at the time. Perhaps because of his reputation for wit, the reaction of
many in the audience could best be described by the title of his later book Surely
You i-e Joking, A4r Feynman. Of course, the lecture is now legendary among presentday nanotechnology researchers, but as one scientist has commented, “it was so
visionary that it did not connect with people until the technology caught up with it.”
There were other visionaries. Ralph Landauer, a theoretical physicist working for
IBM in 1957, had ideas on nanoscale electronics and realized the importance that
quantum-mechanical effects would play in such devices.
Although Feynman presented his visionary lecture in 1960, there was experimental activity in the 1950s and 1960s on small metal particles. It was not called
nanotechnology at that time, and there was not much of it. Uhlir reported the first
observation of porous silicon in 1956, but it was not until 1990 when roomtemperature fluorescence was observed in this material that interest grew. The
properties of porous silicon are discussed in Chapter 6. Other work in this era
involved making alkali metal nanoparticles by vaporizing sodium or potassium metal
and then condensing them on cooler materials called substrates. Magnetic fluids
called ferrofluids were developed in the 1960s. They consist of nanosized magnetic
particles dispersed in liquids. The particles were made by ballmilling in the presence
of a surface-active agent (surfactant) and liquid carrier. They have a number of
interesting properties and applications, which are discussed in Chapter 7. Another
area of activity in the 1960s involved electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) of
conduction electrons in metal particles of nanodimensions referred to as colloids in
those days. The particles were produced by thermal decomposition and irradiation of
solids having positive metal ions, and negative molecular ions such as sodium and
potassium azide. In fact, decomposing these kinds of solids by heat is one way to
make nanometal particles, and we discuss this subject in Chapter 4. Structural
features of metal nanoparticles such as the existence of magic numbers were revealed
in the 1970s using mass spectroscopic studies of sodium metal beams. Herman
and co-workers measured the ionization potential of sodium clusters in 1978 and
observed that it depended on the size of the cluster, which led to the development of
the jellium model of clusters discussed in Chapter 4.
Groups at Bell Laboratories and IBM fabricated the first two-dimensional
quantum wells in the early 1970s. They were made by thin-film (epitaxial) growth
techniques that build a semiconductor layer one atom at a time. The work was the
beginning of the development of the zero-dimensional quantum dot, which is now
one of the more mature nanotechnologies with commercial applications. The
quantum dot and its applications are discussed in Chapter 9.
However, it was not until the 1980s with the emergence of appropriate methods of
fabrication of nanostructures that a notable increase in research activity occurred,
and a number of significant developments resulted. In 1981, a method was developed to make metal clusters using a high-powered focused laser to vaporize
metals into a hot plasma. This is discussed in Chapter 4. A gust of helium cools the
vapor, condensing the metal atoms into clusters of various sizes. In 1985, this