4
INTRODUCTION
method was used to synthesize the fullerene (c6,). In 1982, two Russian scientists,
Ekimov and Omushchenko, reported the first observation of quantum confinement,
which is discussed in Chapter 9. The scanning tunneling microscope was developed
during this decade by G . K. Binnig and H. Roher of the IBM Research Laboratory in
Zurich, and they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986 for this. The invention of the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM),
which are described in Chapter 3, provided new important tools for viewing,
characterizing, and atomic manipulation of nanostructures. In 1987, B. J. van Wees
and H. van Houten of the Netherlands observed steps in the current-voltage curves
of small point contacts. Similar steps were observed by D. Wharam and M. Pepper of
Cambridge University. This represented the first observation of the quantization
of conductance. At the same time T. A. Fulton and G. J. Dolan of Bell Laboratories
made a single-electron transistor and observed the Coulomb blockade, which is
explained in Chapter 9. This period was marked by development of methods of
fabrication such as electron-beam lithography, which are capable of producing
10-nm structures. Also in this decade layered alternating metal magnetic and
nonmagnetic materials, which displayed the fascinating property of giant magnetoresistance, were fabricated. The layers were a nanometer thick, and the materials
have an important application in magnetic storage devices in computers. This subject
is discussed in Chapter 7.
Although the concept of photonic crystals was theoretically formulated in the late
1980s, the first three-dimensional periodic photonic crystal possessing a complete
bandgap was fabricated by Yablonovitch in 199 1. Photonic crystals are discussed in
Chapter 6. In the 1990s, Iijima made carbon nanotubes, and superconductivity and
ferromagnetism were found in c 6 0 structures. Efforts also began to make molecular
switches and measure the electrical conductivity of molecules. A field-effect
transistor based on carbon nanotubes was demonstrated. All of these subjects are
discussed in this book. The study of self-assembly of molecules on metal surfaces
intensified. Self-assembly refers to the spontaneous bonding of molecules to metal
surfaces, forming an organized array of molecules on the surface. Self-assembly of
thiol and disulfide compounds on gold has been most widely studied, and the work is
presented in Chapter 10.
In 1996, a number of government agencies led by the National Science Foundation commissioned a study to assess the current worldwide status of trends,
research, and development in nanoscience and nanotechnology. The detailed
recommendations led to a commitment by the government to provide major funding
and establish a national nanotechnology initiative. Figure 1.1 shows the growth of
U.S. government funding for nanotechnology and the projected increase due to the
national nanotechnology initiative. Two general findings emerged from the study.
The first observation was that materials have been and can be nanostructured for
new properties and novel performance. The underlying basis for this, which we
discuss in more detail in later chapters, is that every property of a material has
a characteristic or critical length associated with it. For example, the resistance of
a material that results from the conduction electrons being scattered out of
the direction of flow by collisions with vibrating atoms and impurities, can be
INTRODUCTION
method was used to synthesize the fullerene (c6,). In 1982, two Russian scientists,
Ekimov and Omushchenko, reported the first observation of quantum confinement,
which is discussed in Chapter 9. The scanning tunneling microscope was developed
during this decade by G . K. Binnig and H. Roher of the IBM Research Laboratory in
Zurich, and they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986 for this. The invention of the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM),
which are described in Chapter 3, provided new important tools for viewing,
characterizing, and atomic manipulation of nanostructures. In 1987, B. J. van Wees
and H. van Houten of the Netherlands observed steps in the current-voltage curves
of small point contacts. Similar steps were observed by D. Wharam and M. Pepper of
Cambridge University. This represented the first observation of the quantization
of conductance. At the same time T. A. Fulton and G. J. Dolan of Bell Laboratories
made a single-electron transistor and observed the Coulomb blockade, which is
explained in Chapter 9. This period was marked by development of methods of
fabrication such as electron-beam lithography, which are capable of producing
10-nm structures. Also in this decade layered alternating metal magnetic and
nonmagnetic materials, which displayed the fascinating property of giant magnetoresistance, were fabricated. The layers were a nanometer thick, and the materials
have an important application in magnetic storage devices in computers. This subject
is discussed in Chapter 7.
Although the concept of photonic crystals was theoretically formulated in the late
1980s, the first three-dimensional periodic photonic crystal possessing a complete
bandgap was fabricated by Yablonovitch in 199 1. Photonic crystals are discussed in
Chapter 6. In the 1990s, Iijima made carbon nanotubes, and superconductivity and
ferromagnetism were found in c 6 0 structures. Efforts also began to make molecular
switches and measure the electrical conductivity of molecules. A field-effect
transistor based on carbon nanotubes was demonstrated. All of these subjects are
discussed in this book. The study of self-assembly of molecules on metal surfaces
intensified. Self-assembly refers to the spontaneous bonding of molecules to metal
surfaces, forming an organized array of molecules on the surface. Self-assembly of
thiol and disulfide compounds on gold has been most widely studied, and the work is
presented in Chapter 10.
In 1996, a number of government agencies led by the National Science Foundation commissioned a study to assess the current worldwide status of trends,
research, and development in nanoscience and nanotechnology. The detailed
recommendations led to a commitment by the government to provide major funding
and establish a national nanotechnology initiative. Figure 1.1 shows the growth of
U.S. government funding for nanotechnology and the projected increase due to the
national nanotechnology initiative. Two general findings emerged from the study.
The first observation was that materials have been and can be nanostructured for
new properties and novel performance. The underlying basis for this, which we
discuss in more detail in later chapters, is that every property of a material has
a characteristic or critical length associated with it. For example, the resistance of
a material that results from the conduction electrons being scattered out of
the direction of flow by collisions with vibrating atoms and impurities, can be