2
INTRODUCTION
The potential importance of clusters was recognized by the Irish-born chemist
Robert Boyle in his Sceptical Chyrnist published in 1661. In it Boyle criticizes
Aristotle’s belief that matter is composed of four elements: earth, fire, water, and air.
Instead, he suggests that tiny particles of matter combine in various ways to form
what he calls corpuscles. He refers to “minute masses or clusters that were not easily
dissipable into such particles that composed them.”
Photography is an advanced and mature technology, developed in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, which depends on production of silver nanoparticles sensitive to light. Photographic film is an emulsion, a thin layer of gelatin containing
silver halides, such as silver bromide, and a base of transparent cellulose acetate. The
light decomposes the silver halides, producing nanoparticles of silver, which are the
pixels of the image. In the late eighteenth century the British scientists Thomas
Wedgewood and Sir Humprey Davy were able to produce images using silver nitrate
and chloride, but their images were not permanent. A number of French and British
researchers worked on the problem in the nineteenth century. Such names as
Daguerre, Niecpce, Talbot, Archer, and Kennet were involved. Interestingly James
Clark Maxwell, whose major contributions were to electromagnetic theory, produced
the first color photograph in 1861. Around 1883 the American inventor George
Eastman, who would later found the Kodak Corporation, produced a film consisting
of a long paper strip coated with an emulsion containing silver halides. He later
developed this into a flexible film that could be rolled, which made photography
accessible to many. So technology based on nanosized materials is really not
that new.
In 1857 Michael Faraday published a paper in the Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal SocieQ, which attempted to explain how metal particles affect the color of
church windows. Gustav Mie was the first to provide an explanation of the
dependence of the color of the glasses on metal size and kind. His paper was
published in the German Journal Annalen der Physik (Leipzig) in 1908.
Richard Feynman was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1965 for his
contributions to quantum electrodynamics, a subject far removed from nanotechnology. Feynman was also a very gifted and flamboyant teacher and lecturer on science,
and is regarded as one of the great theoretical physicists of his time. He had a wide
range of interests beyond science from playing bongo drums to attempting to
interpret Mayan hieroglyphics. The range of his interests and wit can be appreciated
by reading his lighthearted autobiographical book Surely You ’re Joking, Mr.
Fqnman. In 1960 he presented a visionary and prophetic lecture at a meeting of
the American Physical Society, entitled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom,”
where he speculated on the possibility and potential of nanosized materials. He
envisioned etching lines a few atoms wide with beams of electrons, effectively
predicting the existence of electron-beam lithography, which is used today to make
silicon chips. He proposed manipulating individual atoms to make new small
structures having very different properties. Indeed, this has now been accomplished
using a scanning tunneling microscope, discussed in Chapter 3. He envisioned
building circuits on the scale of nanometers that can be used as elements in
more powerful computers. Like many of present-day nanotechnology researchers,
INTRODUCTION
The potential importance of clusters was recognized by the Irish-born chemist
Robert Boyle in his Sceptical Chyrnist published in 1661. In it Boyle criticizes
Aristotle’s belief that matter is composed of four elements: earth, fire, water, and air.
Instead, he suggests that tiny particles of matter combine in various ways to form
what he calls corpuscles. He refers to “minute masses or clusters that were not easily
dissipable into such particles that composed them.”
Photography is an advanced and mature technology, developed in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, which depends on production of silver nanoparticles sensitive to light. Photographic film is an emulsion, a thin layer of gelatin containing
silver halides, such as silver bromide, and a base of transparent cellulose acetate. The
light decomposes the silver halides, producing nanoparticles of silver, which are the
pixels of the image. In the late eighteenth century the British scientists Thomas
Wedgewood and Sir Humprey Davy were able to produce images using silver nitrate
and chloride, but their images were not permanent. A number of French and British
researchers worked on the problem in the nineteenth century. Such names as
Daguerre, Niecpce, Talbot, Archer, and Kennet were involved. Interestingly James
Clark Maxwell, whose major contributions were to electromagnetic theory, produced
the first color photograph in 1861. Around 1883 the American inventor George
Eastman, who would later found the Kodak Corporation, produced a film consisting
of a long paper strip coated with an emulsion containing silver halides. He later
developed this into a flexible film that could be rolled, which made photography
accessible to many. So technology based on nanosized materials is really not
that new.
In 1857 Michael Faraday published a paper in the Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal SocieQ, which attempted to explain how metal particles affect the color of
church windows. Gustav Mie was the first to provide an explanation of the
dependence of the color of the glasses on metal size and kind. His paper was
published in the German Journal Annalen der Physik (Leipzig) in 1908.
Richard Feynman was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1965 for his
contributions to quantum electrodynamics, a subject far removed from nanotechnology. Feynman was also a very gifted and flamboyant teacher and lecturer on science,
and is regarded as one of the great theoretical physicists of his time. He had a wide
range of interests beyond science from playing bongo drums to attempting to
interpret Mayan hieroglyphics. The range of his interests and wit can be appreciated
by reading his lighthearted autobiographical book Surely You ’re Joking, Mr.
Fqnman. In 1960 he presented a visionary and prophetic lecture at a meeting of
the American Physical Society, entitled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom,”
where he speculated on the possibility and potential of nanosized materials. He
envisioned etching lines a few atoms wide with beams of electrons, effectively
predicting the existence of electron-beam lithography, which is used today to make
silicon chips. He proposed manipulating individual atoms to make new small
structures having very different properties. Indeed, this has now been accomplished
using a scanning tunneling microscope, discussed in Chapter 3. He envisioned
building circuits on the scale of nanometers that can be used as elements in
more powerful computers. Like many of present-day nanotechnology researchers,